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| | [[Portal:Hydro|► Back to Hydro Portal]] | | [[Portal:Hydro|► Back to Hydro Portal]] |
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| − | = Overview - Principle of Hydro Power<br/> = | + | = Overview<br/> = |
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| − | A mass of water moving down a height difference contains energy. This can be harvested. Moving water drives some waterwheel/turbine. This rotation either drives machinery directly (e.g. mill, pump, hammer, thresher, ...) or is coupled with a generator which produces electric power. | + | A mass of water moving down a height difference contains energy. This can be harvested. Moving water drives some waterwheel / turbine. This rotation either drives machinery directly (e.g. mill, pump, hammer, thresher, ...) or is coupled with a generator which produces electric power. |
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| − | Hydropower is probably the first form of automated power production which is not human/animal driven. Moving a grind stone for milling first, developed into the driving of an electrical generator. Next to steam it was for long the main power source for electricity.
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| − | Its continual availability does not require any power storage (unlike wind/solar power). It is mainly mechanical hardware. This makes it relative easy to understand and repair-/maintainable. In smaller units its environmental impact becomes neglect-able (see: [[Hydro - Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)|environmental impact assessment]] and [[Micro Hydro Power (MHP) - Pros and Cons|pros and cons of micro hydropower]]) . | + | |
| | + | = Principle of Hydro Power = |
| | + | |
| | + | Hydro power is probably the first form of automated power production which is not human / animal driven. Moving a grind stone for milling first, developed into the driving of an electrical generator. Next to steam it was for long the main power source for electricity.Its continual availability does not require any power storage (unlike [[Portal:Wind|wind]] / [[Portal:Solar|solar power]]). It is mainly mechanical hardware. This makes it relative easy to understand and repair-/maintainable. In smaller units its environmental impact becomes neglect-able (see: [[Hydro - Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)|environmental impact assessment]] and [[Micro Hydro Power (MHP) - Pros and Cons|pros and cons of micro hydropower]]). |
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| | + | = Head & Flow = |
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| | <u>In order to create electricity from hydropower, two parameters are critical:</u><br/> | | <u>In order to create electricity from hydropower, two parameters are critical:</u><br/> |
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| | Wrong data occurs frequently. Confirmation of existing data is '''highly recommended'''! | | Wrong data occurs frequently. Confirmation of existing data is '''highly recommended'''! |
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| − | <span>Head and flow are the two most important facts of a hydro site. This will determine everything about the hydro system—volume of civil constructions, pipeline size, turbine type and power output. </span>Inaccurate measurements result in low efficiency, high cost and scarcity of power. | + | <span>Head and flow are the two most important facts of a hydro site. This will determine everything about the hydro system - volume of civil constructions, pipeline size, turbine type and power output. </span>Inaccurate measurements result in low efficiency, high cost and scarcity of power. |
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| | *"[[:File:Laymans book - how to develop a small hydro site 128-266.pdf|Layman's book: How to develop a Small Hydro Site]]" may be a good start. | | *"[[:File:Laymans book - how to develop a small hydro site 128-266.pdf|Layman's book: How to develop a Small Hydro Site]]" may be a good start. |
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| − | <br/>
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| − | [[Hydro Power Basics#toc|►Go to Top]]<br/>
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| − | <br/> | + | == Methods of Head and Flow Measurement without Sophisticated Tools<br/> == |
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| − | === Methods of Head and Flow Measurement without Sophisticated Tools<br/> === | + | *'''<u><span style="font-weight: bold">E</span>stimation of height</u>''' can be done easiest if there is a steep slope (waterfall) by rope. |
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| − | *'''<u><span style="font-weight: bold">E</span>stimation of height</u>''' can be done easiest if there is a steep slope (waterfall)by rope. Principle of a step by step head measurement:<br/>
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| | + | <u>Principle of a step by step head measurement:</u><br/> |
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| | [[File:Head measurement.jpg|thumb|center|600px|Head measurement|alt=Head measurement.jpg]] | | [[File:Head measurement.jpg|thumb|center|600px|Head measurement|alt=Head measurement.jpg]] |
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| | | [[File:Height measure by level.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Height measure by level|alt=Height measure by level.jpg]]<br/> | | | [[File:Height measure by level.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Height measure by level|alt=Height measure by level.jpg]]<br/> |
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| | <br/> | | <br/> |
| | + | *<u>'''Estimation of flow'''</u> is very difficult without measurement. |
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| − | <u>'''Estimation of flow'''</u> is very difficult without measurement. A quick and easy way to measure is the '''floating method'''<br/>
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| − | <u>First</u>, measure the waters speed at an steady flowing part of the river. Therefore drop some item and stop the time it needs for a certain distance to float. <u>Second</u>, do a sketch of the rivers cross section by measuring its depth every 20-50 cm so you come up with a grid showing the rivers profile from side to side. With this data its cross sections area can be calculated easily. <u>Finally</u> the flow volume results from (water) speed x (section) area. | + | <u>A quick and easy way to measure is the '''floating method''':</u><br/> |
| | + | #<u>First</u>, measure the waters speed at an steady flowing part of the river. Therefore drop some item and stop the time it needs for a certain distance to float. <u></u> |
| | + | #<u>Second</u>, do a sketch of the rivers cross section by measuring its depth every 20-50 cm so you come up with a grid showing the rivers profile from side to side. With this data its cross sections area can be calculated easily. |
| | + | #<u>Finally</u> the flow volume results from (water) speed x (section) area. |
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| | <br/> | | <br/> |
| | + | <ul> |
| | + | <li><u>To estimate a sites '''potential cost''' its necessary to know additionally:</u><br/><ul style="margin-left: 40px;"> |
| | + | <li>Pipeline (penstock) length</li> |
| | + | <li>Electrical transmission line length (from turbine to consumer). As smaller the sites power output as higher the power lines cost share</li> |
| | + | <li>Number of potential customers</li> |
| | + | </ul> |
| | + | </li> |
| | + | </ul> |
| | + | [[Hydro Power Basics#toc|►Go to Top]] |
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| − | <u>To estimate a sites '''potential cost''' its necessary to know additionally:</u><br/>
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| − | *Pipeline (penstock) length
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| − | *Electrical transmission line length (from turbine to consumer). As smaller the sites power output as higher the power lines cost share
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| − | *Number of potential customers
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| − | <br/>
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| − |
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| − | [[Hydro Power Basics#toc|►Go to Top]]
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| | == Units and Power Estimations<br/> == | | == Units and Power Estimations<br/> == |
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| | Power: watts [W] or Kilowatts [kW] 1 kW = 1000W<br/>Flow: 1 m³/s = 1000 l/s<br/>Gross heat: height difference the water "falls down"<br/>Net head: a little smaller than gross head. Gross head deducted by energy loss due to friction in penstock | | Power: watts [W] or Kilowatts [kW] 1 kW = 1000W<br/>Flow: 1 m³/s = 1000 l/s<br/>Gross heat: height difference the water "falls down"<br/>Net head: a little smaller than gross head. Gross head deducted by energy loss due to friction in penstock |
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| − | '''Potential power ('''electric)'''''' is <u>calculated</u> as follows:<br/>Power [W] = Net head [m] x Flow [ l/s] x 9.81 [m/s²] (est. gravity constant) x 0.5 (turbine/generator efficiency)<br/>Potential power is <u>estimated</u> as follows:<br/>Power output [W] = height [m] * flow [l/s] * 5
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| − | '''More accurate estimations''' take into consideration: | + | |
| | + | <u>'''Potential power ('''electric)'''''' is calculated as follows:</u><br/>Power [W] = Net head [m] x Flow [ l/s] x 9.81 [m/s²] (est. gravity constant) x 0.5 (turbine/generator efficiency)<br/>Potential power is <u>estimated</u> as follows:<br/>Power output [W] = height [m] * flow [l/s] * 5 |
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| | + | <u>'''More accurate estimations''' take into consideration:</u> |
| | *exact net head (intake to powerhouse) | | *exact net head (intake to powerhouse) |
| | *exact flow (constant during the year?) | | *exact flow (constant during the year?) |
| | *combined efficiency of turbine and generator (depends on quality, est. 60% = 0.6) | | *combined efficiency of turbine and generator (depends on quality, est. 60% = 0.6) |
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| − | '''Example:'''<br/>A 6 m high waterfall has 300 liter/sec => potential power est. : 6 m * 300 l/s * 5 = 9000 W = 9 kW
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| − | <br/> | + | |
| | + | '''Example:'''<br/>A 6 m high waterfall has 300 liter/sec => potential power est. : 6 m * 300 l/s * 5 = 9000 W = 9 kW |
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| | [[Hydro Power Basics#toc|►Go to Top]] | | [[Hydro Power Basics#toc|►Go to Top]] |
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| | = Classification of Hydro Power<br/> = | | = Classification of Hydro Power<br/> = |
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| | For the [http://www.unido.org/ United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO)] and the [http://www.esha.be/ European Small Hydropower Association (ESHA)] and the [http://cbip.org/iash/iash.html International Association for Small Hydro (IASH)] a capacity of up to '''10''' '''MW''' total is becoming the generally accepted norm for '''small hydropower plants (SHP)'''. In China, it can refer to capacities of up to 25 MW, in India up to 15 MW and in Sweden small means up to 1.5 MW, in Canada 'small' can refer to upper limit capacities of between 20 and 25 MW, and in the United States 'small' can mean 30 MW.<br/> | | For the [http://www.unido.org/ United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO)] and the [http://www.esha.be/ European Small Hydropower Association (ESHA)] and the [http://cbip.org/iash/iash.html International Association for Small Hydro (IASH)] a capacity of up to '''10''' '''MW''' total is becoming the generally accepted norm for '''small hydropower plants (SHP)'''. In China, it can refer to capacities of up to 25 MW, in India up to 15 MW and in Sweden small means up to 1.5 MW, in Canada 'small' can refer to upper limit capacities of between 20 and 25 MW, and in the United States 'small' can mean 30 MW.<br/> |
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| − | The German Federal Ministry for Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety mentioned that a SHP is < 1 MW, everything above is a large hydro electric plant and usually comes along with a large dam. The I[http://www.icold-cigb.org/ nternational Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD)] defines a large dam as a dam with a height of 15 m or more from the foundation. If dams are between 5-15 m high and have a reservoir volume of more than 3 million m<sup>3</sup>, they are also classified as large dams. Using this definition, there are over 45 000 large dams around the world.<br/> | + | The German Federal Ministry for Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety mentioned that a SHP is <1 MW, everything above is a large hydro electric plant and usually comes along with a large dam. The [http://www.icold-cigb.org/ International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD)] defines a large dam as a dam with a height of 15 m or more from the foundation. If dams are between 5-15 m high and have a reservoir volume of more than 3 million m<sup>3</sup>, they are also classified as large dams. Using this definition, there are over 45 000 large dams around the world.<br/> |
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| | <u>Small hydro can be further subdivided into mini, micro and pico:</u> | | <u>Small hydro can be further subdivided into mini, micro and pico:</u> |
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| − | There is no binding definition how Mini hydropower output is to be classified. Rules for communication avoiding misunderstandings: Generally the terms can be used "downwards compatible". Pico- is also Mini- but not visa versa. Specific terms (Pico, Family) should be used only if they are required to indicate specifics. The spectrum needs higher diversification as smaller it becomes as there are certain differences in technique, usage, applicability and the grade of of ability to replicate them.<br/> | + | There is no binding definition how mini hydro power output is to be classified. Rules for communication avoiding misunderstandings: Generally the terms can be used "downwards compatible". Pico- is also Mini- but not visa versa. Specific terms (Pico, Family) should be used only if they are required to indicate specifics. The spectrum needs higher diversification as smaller it becomes as there are certain differences in technique, usage, applicability and the grade of of ability to replicate them.<br/> |
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| | <u>'''Comments:'''</u><br/> | | <u>'''Comments:'''</u><br/> |
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| | *Historically the term hydropower developed from naming very small units towards nowadays huge dams. Then there where new terms created to separate different clusters. All of them are hydropower. What is considered "mini or "micro" may be defined once and forever ... or not. If there are different opinions on this topic you're welcome to open a discussion group on this. | | *Historically the term hydropower developed from naming very small units towards nowadays huge dams. Then there where new terms created to separate different clusters. All of them are hydropower. What is considered "mini or "micro" may be defined once and forever ... or not. If there are different opinions on this topic you're welcome to open a discussion group on this. |
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| − | [[Hydro Power Basics#toc|►Go to Top]]<br/>
| + | <u></u> |
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| − | <br/> | + | <u>Comments on the Debate “small” versus “large” Hydro Power:</u><br/> |
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| − | === Comments on the Debate “small” versus “large” Hydro Power<br/> ===
| + | Classification according to size has led to concepts such as ‘small hydro’ and ‘large hydro’, based on installed capacity measured in MW as the defining criterion. Defining hydropower by size is somewhat arbitrary, as there are no clear relationships between installed capacity and general properties of hydro power or its impacts. Hydro power comes in manifold project types (see Classification [[Hydro_Power_Basics#By_Facility_Type.5B3.5D|By Facility Type]]) and is a highly site-specific technology, where each project is a tailor-made outcome for a particular location within a given river basin to meet specific needs for energy and water management services. |
| − | | + | |
| − | Classification according to size has led to concepts such as ‘small hydro’ and ‘large hydro’, based on installed capacity measured in MW as the defining criterion. Defining hydropower by size is somewhat arbitrary, as there are no clear relationships between installed capacity and general properties of hydropower or its impacts. Hydropower comes in manifold project types (see Classification [[Hydro Power Basics#By Facility Type|By Facility Type]]) and is a highly site-specific technology, where each project is a tailor-made outcome for a particular location within a given river basin to meet specific needs for energy and water management services. | + | |
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| − | The constructions and integration into local environments of Small Hydro Power (SHP) schemes typically takes less time and effort compared to large hydropower plants. For this reason, the deployment of SHPs is increasing in many parts of the world, especially in remote areas where other energy sources are not viable or are not economically attractive. | + | The constructions and integration into local environments of '''Small Hydro Power (SHP)''' schemes typically takes less time and effort compared to large hydropower plants. For this reason, the deployment of SHPs is increasing in many parts of the world, especially in remote areas where other energy sources are not viable or are not economically attractive. |
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| | <br/> | | <br/> |
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| − | However, larger facilities will tend to have lower costs on a USD/kW basis due to economies of scale, even if that tendency will only hold on average. Moreover, one large-scale hydropower project of 2,000 MW located in a remote area of one river basin might have fewer negative impacts than the cumulative impacts of four hundred 5 MW hydropower projects in many river basins (see also [[Socio-economic and Environmental Impacts of MHP#Negative Environmental Impacts|Negative Environmental Impacts]]). For that reason, even the cumulative relative environmental and social impacts of large versus small hydropower development remain unclear, and context dependent. '''General concepts like ‘small’ or ‘large hydro’ are not technically or scientifically rigorous indicators of impacts, economics or characteristics. Hydropower projects cover a continuum in scale, and it may be more useful to evaluate a hydropower project on its sustainability or economic performance, thus setting out more realistic indicators'''<ref>IPCC Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation, Chapter 5 Hydropower (2011). Prepared by Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [O. Edenhofer, R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, K. Seyboth, P. Matschoss, S. Kadner, T. Zwickel, P. Eickemeier, G. Hansen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow (eds)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 1075 pp.</ref>. | + | However, larger facilities will tend to have lower costs on a USD/kW basis due to economies of scale, even if that tendency will only hold on average. Moreover, one large-scale hydropower project of 2,000 MW located in a remote area of one river basin might have fewer negative impacts than the cumulative impacts of four hundred 5 MW hydropower projects in many river basins (see also [[Socio-economic_and_Environmental_Impacts_of_MHP#Negative_Environmental_Impacts|Negative Environmental Impacts]] |
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| | + | | style="background-color: rgb(153, 153, 153)" | |
| | + | '''General concepts like ‘small’ or ‘large hydro’ are not technically or scientifically rigorous indicators of impacts, economics or characteristics. Hydropower projects cover a continuum in scale, and it may be more useful to evaluate a hydropower project on its sustainability or economic performance, thus setting out more realistic indicators'''<ref>IPCC Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation, Chapter 5 Hydropower (2011). Prepared by Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [O. Edenhofer, R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, K. Seyboth, P. Matschoss, S. Kadner, T. Zwickel, P. Eickemeier, G. Hansen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow (eds)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 1075 pp.</ref>.<br/> |
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| | [[Hydro Power Basics#toc|►Go to Top]] | | [[Hydro Power Basics#toc|►Go to Top]] |
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| | + | <br/> |
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| − | == By Facility Type<ref name="http://srren.ipcc-wg3.de/report - Prepared by Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [O. Edenhofer, R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, K. Seyboth, P. Matschoss, S. Kadner, T. Zwickel, P. Eickemeier, G. Hansen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow (eds)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 1075 pp.">http://srren.ipcc-wg3.de/report - Prepared by Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [O. Edenhofer, R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, K. Seyboth, P. Matschoss, S. Kadner, T. Zwickel, P. Eickemeier, G. Hansen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow (eds)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 1075 pp.</ref><br/> == | + | == By Facility Type<br/> == |
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| − | <u>Hydropower plants can be classified in three categories according to operation and type of flow:</u><br/> | + | <u>Hydropower plants can be classified in three categories according to operation and type of flow:</u><ref name="http://srren.ipcc-wg3.de/report - Prepared by Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [O. Edenhofer, R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, K. Seyboth, P. Matschoss, S. Kadner, T. Zwickel, P. Eickemeier, G. Hansen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow (eds)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 1075 pp.">http://srren.ipcc-wg3.de/report - Prepared by Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [O. Edenhofer, R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, K. Seyboth, P. Matschoss, S. Kadner, T. Zwickel, P. Eickemeier, G. Hansen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow (eds)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 1075 pp.</ref> |
| − | #Run-of-river (RoR),<br/> | + | #'''Run-of-river (RoR),<br/>''' |
| − | #storage (reservoir) and | + | #'''Storage (reservoir)''' |
| − | #pumped storage HPPs<br/> | + | #'''Pumped storage hydro power plants (HPPs)'''<br/> |
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| | In addition, there is a fourth category called in-stream technology, which is a young and less-developed technology.<br/> | | In addition, there is a fourth category called in-stream technology, which is a young and less-developed technology.<br/> |
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| | Storage HPPs require high dams and big storage areas to be flooded. Such is usually the case in big infrastructure projects including the known environmental impacts. Small and micro hydropower usually avoids those but utilizes water that runs of a river.<br/> | | Storage HPPs require high dams and big storage areas to be flooded. Such is usually the case in big infrastructure projects including the known environmental impacts. Small and micro hydropower usually avoids those but utilizes water that runs of a river.<br/> |
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| − | '''<u>'Run-of-River Hydropower 'Plant (RoR)</u>'''<br/> | + | '''<u>'Run-of-River Hydropower' Plant (RoR)</u>'''<ref name="http://srren.ipcc-wg3.de/report - Prepared by Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [O. Edenhofer, R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, K. Seyboth, P. Matschoss, S. Kadner, T. Zwickel, P. Eickemeier, G. Hansen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow (eds)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 1075 pp.">http://srren.ipcc-wg3.de/report - Prepared by Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [O. Edenhofer, R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, K. Seyboth, P. Matschoss, S. Kadner, T. Zwickel, P. Eickemeier, G. Hansen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow (eds)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 1075 pp.</ref> |
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| | | style="width: 223px" | [[File:Run-of-River Hydropower Plant.JPG|thumb|left|209px|Run-of-River Hydropower Plant|alt=Run-of-River Hydropower Plant]]<br/> | | | style="width: 223px" | [[File:Run-of-River Hydropower Plant.JPG|thumb|left|209px|Run-of-River Hydropower Plant|alt=Run-of-River Hydropower Plant]]<br/> |
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| − | <u>'''Hydropower Plant with Reservoir'''</u><br/> | + | <u>'''Hydropower Plant with Reservoir'''</u><ref name="http://srren.ipcc-wg3.de/report - Prepared by Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [O. Edenhofer, R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, K. Seyboth, P. Matschoss, S. Kadner, T. Zwickel, P. Eickemeier, G. Hansen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow (eds)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 1075 pp.">http://srren.ipcc-wg3.de/report - Prepared by Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [O. Edenhofer, R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, K. Seyboth, P. Matschoss, S. Kadner, T. Zwickel, P. Eickemeier, G. Hansen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow (eds)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 1075 pp.</ref> |
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| − | <br/>
| + | <u>'''Pump Storage Hydropower Plant'''</u><ref name="http://srren.ipcc-wg3.de/report - Prepared by Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [O. Edenhofer, R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, K. Seyboth, P. Matschoss, S. Kadner, T. Zwickel, P. Eickemeier, G. Hansen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow (eds)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 1075 pp.">http://srren.ipcc-wg3.de/report - Prepared by Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [O. Edenhofer, R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, K. Seyboth, P. Matschoss, S. Kadner, T. Zwickel, P. Eickemeier, G. Hansen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow (eds)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 1075 pp.</ref> |
| − | | + | |
| − | <u>'''Pump Storage Hydropower Plant'''</u><br/> | + | |
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| − | <br/><u>'''In-stream Hydropower Scheme'''</u>
| + | <u>'''In-stream Hydropower Scheme'''</u><ref name="http://srren.ipcc-wg3.de/report - Prepared by Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [O. Edenhofer, R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, K. Seyboth, P. Matschoss, S. Kadner, T. Zwickel, P. Eickemeier, G. Hansen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow (eds)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 1075 pp.">http://srren.ipcc-wg3.de/report - Prepared by Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [O. Edenhofer, R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, K. Seyboth, P. Matschoss, S. Kadner, T. Zwickel, P. Eickemeier, G. Hansen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow (eds)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 1075 pp.</ref> |
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| − | | style="width: 206px" | ''Space for a figure'' | + | | style="width: 206px" | ''(figure)'' |
| | | style="width: 547px" | | | | style="width: 547px" | |
| | *To optimize existing facilities like weirs, barrages, canals or falls, small turbines or hydrokinetic turbines can be installed | | *To optimize existing facilities like weirs, barrages, canals or falls, small turbines or hydrokinetic turbines can be installed |
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| | <br/> | | <br/> |
| | | | |
| − | Text and Figures of this article are mainly taken from the Chapter 5 of the [http://srren.ipcc-wg3.de/report IPCC Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation (2011)]. | + | ► Text and Figures of this chapter are mainly taken from the Chapter 5 of the [http://srren.ipcc-wg3.de/report IPCC Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation (2011)]. |
| − | | + | |
| − | <br/>
| + | |
| | | | |
| | [[Hydro Power Basics#toc|►Go to Top]] | | [[Hydro Power Basics#toc|►Go to Top]] |
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| | + | <br/> |
| | | | |
| | = Facts on Hydro Power = | | = Facts on Hydro Power = |
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| | <br/> | | <br/> |
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| − | {| align="center" cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1" border="1" style="width: 629px; height: 534px" | + | {| cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1" border="1" align="center" style="height: 534px; width: 100%" |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | ! style="width: 147px" scope="row" | Country<ref name="http://www.hydropower-dams.com/world-atlas-industry-guide.php?c_id=159">http://www.hydropower-dams.com/world-atlas-industry-guide.php?c_id=159</ref> | + | ! scope="row" style="width: 147px; text-align: left; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204)" | Country<ref name="http://www.hydropower-dams.com/world-atlas-industry-guide.php?c_id=159">http://www.hydropower-dams.com/world-atlas-industry-guide.php?c_id=159</ref> |
| − | | style="width: 237px" | '''Installed Hydropower Capacity in MW'''
| + | ! style="width: 147px; text-align: left; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204)" | Installed Hydropower Capacity in MW |
| − | | style="width: 230px" | '''% of total electricity generation'''
| + | ! style="width: 147px; text-align: left; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204)" | % of total electricity generation |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | ! style="width: 147px" scope="row" | Burundi | + | ! scope="row" style="width: 147px; text-align: left" | Burundi |
| − | | style="width: 237px" | 50.5 | + | | style="width: 237px; text-align: center" | 50.5 |
| − | | style="width: 230px" | 100 | + | | style="width: 230px; text-align: center" | 100 |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | ! style="width: 147px" scope="row" | Bhutan | + | ! scope="row" style="width: 147px; text-align: left" | Bhutan |
| − | | style="width: 237px" | 1488 | + | | style="width: 237px; text-align: center" | 1488 |
| − | | style="width: 230px" | 100 | + | | style="width: 230px; text-align: center" | 100 |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | ! style="width: 147px" scope="row" | Congo, Dem. Rep. | + | ! scope="row" style="width: 147px; text-align: left" | Congo, Dem. Rep. |
| − | | style="width: 237px" | 2442 | + | | style="width: 237px; text-align: center" | 2442 |
| − | | style="width: 230px" | 100 | + | | style="width: 230px; text-align: center" | 100 |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | ! style="width: 147px" scope="row" | Lesotho | + | ! scope="row" style="width: 147px; text-align: left" | Lesotho |
| − | | style="width: 237px" | 76 | + | | style="width: 237px; text-align: center" | 76 |
| − | | style="width: 230px" | 100 | + | | style="width: 230px; text-align: center" | 100 |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | ! style="width: 147px" scope="row" | Namibia | + | ! scope="row" style="width: 147px; text-align: left" | Namibia |
| − | | style="width: 237px" | 249 | + | | style="width: 237px; text-align: center" | 249 |
| − | | style="width: 230px" | 100 | + | | style="width: 230px; text-align: center" | 100 |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | ! style="width: 147px" scope="row" | Paraguay | + | ! scope="row" style="width: 147px; text-align: left" | Paraguay |
| − | | style="width: 237px" | 68000 | + | | style="width: 237px; text-align: center" | 68000 |
| − | | style="width: 230px" | 100 | + | | style="width: 230px; text-align: center" | 100 |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | ! style="width: 147px" scope="row" | Mozambique | + | ! scope="row" style="width: 147px; text-align: left" | Mozambique |
| − | | style="width: 237px" | 2179 | + | | style="width: 237px; text-align: center" | 2179 |
| − | | style="width: 230px" | 100 | + | | style="width: 230px; text-align: center" | 100 |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | ! style="width: 147px" scope="row" | Zambia | + | ! scope="row" style="width: 147px; text-align: left" | Zambia |
| − | | style="width: 237px" | 1812 | + | | style="width: 237px; text-align: center" | 1812 |
| − | | style="width: 230px" | >99 | + | | style="width: 230px; text-align: center" | >99 |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | ! style="width: 147px" scope="row" | Norway | + | ! scope="row" style="width: 147px; text-align: left" | Norway |
| − | | style="width: 237px" | 29636 | + | | style="width: 237px; text-align: center" | 29636 |
| − | | style="width: 230px" | 99 | + | | style="width: 230px; text-align: center" | 99 |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | ! style="width: 147px" scope="row" | Albania | + | ! scope="row" style="width: 147px; text-align: left" | Albania |
| − | | style="width: 237px" | 1450 | + | | style="width: 237px; text-align: center" | 1450 |
| − | | style="width: 230px" | 98 | + | | style="width: 230px; text-align: center" | 98 |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | ! style="width: 147px" scope="row" | Lao PDR | + | ! scope="row" style="width: 147px; text-align: left" | Lao PDR |
| − | | style="width: 237px" | 2000 | + | | style="width: 237px; text-align: center" | 2000 |
| − | | style="width: 230px" | 98 | + | | style="width: 230px; text-align: center" | 98 |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | ! style="width: 147px" scope="row" | Tajikistan | + | ! scope="row" style="width: 147px; text-align: left" | Tajikistan |
| − | | style="width: 237px" | 5200 | + | | style="width: 237px; text-align: center" | 5200 |
| − | | style="width: 230px" | 96 | + | | style="width: 230px; text-align: center" | 96 |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | ! style="width: 147px" scope="row" | Ethiopia | + | ! scope="row" style="width: 147px; text-align: left" | Ethiopia |
| − | | style="width: 237px" | 784 | + | | style="width: 237px; text-align: center" | 784 |
| − | | style="width: 230px" | >95 | + | | style="width: 230px; text-align: center" | >95 |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | ! style="width: 147px" scope="row" | Malawi | + | ! scope="row" style="width: 147px; text-align: left" | Malawi |
| − | | style="width: 237px" | 290 | + | | style="width: 237px; text-align: center" | 290 |
| − | | style="width: 230px" | 95 | + | | style="width: 230px; text-align: center" | 95 |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | ! style="width: 147px" scope="row" | Cameroon | + | ! scope="row" style="width: 147px; text-align: left" | Cameroon |
| − | | style="width: 237px" | 720 | + | | style="width: 237px; text-align: center" | 720 |
| − | | style="width: 230px" | 94 | + | | style="width: 230px; text-align: center" | 94 |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | ! style="width: 147px" scope="row" | Nepal | + | ! scope="row" style="width: 147px; text-align: left" | Nepal |
| − | | style="width: 237px" | 660 | + | | style="width: 237px; text-align: center" | 660 |
| − | | style="width: 230px" | 92 | + | | style="width: 230px; text-align: center" | 92 |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | ! style="width: 147px" scope="row" | Kyrgyz Republic | + | ! scope="row" style="width: 147px; text-align: left" | Kyrgyz Republic |
| − | | style="width: 237px" | 2910 | + | | style="width: 237px; text-align: center" | 2910 |
| − | | style="width: 230px" | 91 | + | | style="width: 230px; text-align: center" | 91 |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | ! style="width: 147px" scope="row" | Congo, Rep. | + | ! scope="row" style="width: 147px; text-align: left" | Congo, Rep. |
| − | | style="width: 237px" | 119 | + | | style="width: 237px; text-align: center" | 119 |
| − | | style="width: 230px" | >90 | + | | style="width: 230px; text-align: center" | >90 |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | ! style="width: 147px" scope="row" | Georgia | + | ! scope="row" style="width: 147px; text-align: left" | Georgia |
| − | | style="width: 237px" | 2850 | + | | style="width: 237px; text-align: center" | 2850 |
| − | | style="width: 230px" | 86 | + | | style="width: 230px; text-align: center" | 86 |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | ! style="width: 147px" scope="row" | Brazil | + | ! scope="row" style="width: 147px; text-align: left" | Brazil |
| − | | style="width: 237px" | 84000 | + | | style="width: 237px; text-align: center" | 84000 |
| − | | style="width: 230px" | 84 | + | | style="width: 230px; text-align: center" | 84 |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | ! style="width: 147px" scope="row" | Swaziland | + | ! scope="row" style="width: 147px; text-align: left" | Swaziland |
| − | | style="width: 237px" | 42 | + | | style="width: 237px; text-align: center" | 42 |
| − | | style="width: 230px" | 82 | + | | style="width: 230px; text-align: center" | 82 |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | ! style="width: 147px" scope="row" | Central afric. Rep. | + | ! scope="row" style="width: 147px; text-align: left" | Central afric. Rep. |
| − | | style="width: 237px" | 24.6 | + | | style="width: 237px; text-align: center" | 24.6 |
| − | | style="width: 230px" | 80 | + | | style="width: 230px; text-align: center" | 80 |
| | |} | | |} |
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| | *For Existing Sites see also [[Hydropower Sites - GPS Coordinates|GPS coordinates - Hydropower sites]] | | *For Existing Sites see also [[Hydropower Sites - GPS Coordinates|GPS coordinates - Hydropower sites]] |
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| − | <br/>
| + | [[Hydro Power Basics#toc|►Go to Top]] |
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| − | [[Hydro Power Basics#toc|►Go to Top]]
| |
| | | | |
| | == Hydropower Potential == | | == Hydropower Potential == |
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| | *Hydropower potential is bound to specific sites, which may be far from potential energy usage | | *Hydropower potential is bound to specific sites, which may be far from potential energy usage |
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| − | | + | <br/> |
| | | | |
| | Small hydropower potential is given in hilly or mountainous regions, where rivers do not fall dry during the year.<br/>Where gravity fed irrigation is practiced small and micro power plants find suiting conditions. | | Small hydropower potential is given in hilly or mountainous regions, where rivers do not fall dry during the year.<br/>Where gravity fed irrigation is practiced small and micro power plants find suiting conditions. |
| | | | |
| | Mountainous regions often have bad infrastructure and are least to be connected to a electric grid. If there is water available it may be a suitable source for decentralised hydro power electrification. Such setups may even get support from governmental or major electricity supplier. The costs to connect remote areas are high, whereby the revenue, due to little amount of electricity utilised, is low. | | Mountainous regions often have bad infrastructure and are least to be connected to a electric grid. If there is water available it may be a suitable source for decentralised hydro power electrification. Such setups may even get support from governmental or major electricity supplier. The costs to connect remote areas are high, whereby the revenue, due to little amount of electricity utilised, is low. |
| − |
| |
| − | <br/>
| |
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| | [[Hydro Power Basics#toc|►Go to Top]]<br/> | | [[Hydro Power Basics#toc|►Go to Top]]<br/> |
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| | + | <br/> |
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| | = Micro Hydro Power Shemes = | | = Micro Hydro Power Shemes = |
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| | Small hydropower plants usually use (part-) river flow as driving force. Storage basins or even dams can buffer water. So demand peaks or (short) periods of water shortage can be bridged. As such infrastructures is costly and sophisticated, it's only used if there is a clear financial revenue; e.g. electricity supply for remote industries. Standard elements for mhp | | Small hydropower plants usually use (part-) river flow as driving force. Storage basins or even dams can buffer water. So demand peaks or (short) periods of water shortage can be bridged. As such infrastructures is costly and sophisticated, it's only used if there is a clear financial revenue; e.g. electricity supply for remote industries. Standard elements for mhp |
| | | | |
| − | <u>'''Construction''' a MHP consists of: </u> | + | <u>'''Construction''' a MHP consists of:</u> |
| | | | |
| − | divertion constructions in the river, Guiding water per canal and pipe, the '''electrical-mechanical''' '''equipment''' to turn water power into electricity plus transmission lines and house connections. | + | divertion constructions in the river, Guiding water per canal and pipe, the '''electrical-mechanical''' '''equipment''' to turn water power into electricity plus transmission lines and house connections. |
| | | | |
| | Nevertheless if it is community based, main challenge will be the '''social setup'''. The people of the community who will build / use the MHP have to be introduced, trained, learned and encouraged to organise, operate and manage their power station. A sustainable working mhp scheme requires users who are enabled to understand "their" system. | | Nevertheless if it is community based, main challenge will be the '''social setup'''. The people of the community who will build / use the MHP have to be introduced, trained, learned and encouraged to organise, operate and manage their power station. A sustainable working mhp scheme requires users who are enabled to understand "their" system. |
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| | | [[File:Forbay trashrack pennstock.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Forbay, spillway, trashrack pennstock. (including breather pipe, trust & support blocks)|alt=Forbay trashrack pennstock.jpg]] | | | [[File:Forbay trashrack pennstock.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Forbay, spillway, trashrack pennstock. (including breather pipe, trust & support blocks)|alt=Forbay trashrack pennstock.jpg]] |
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| | | [[File:Management-Poster.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Organisation and Management]]<br/><br/> | | | [[File:Management-Poster.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Organisation and Management]]<br/><br/> |
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| | [[Hydro Power Basics#toc|►Go to Top]] | | [[Hydro Power Basics#toc|►Go to Top]] |
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| | == Economics of Micro Hydro Systems<br/> == | | == Economics of Micro Hydro Systems<br/> == |
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| | Electricity is a key factor for productive businesses. Experience shows, this isn't an automatism very commonly. Additional income is generated only if the revenue is made from outside the community. Typically added value is created by subsequent processing of commodities. Exemplary: coffee roasting, fruit drying, freezing fish, ... | | Electricity is a key factor for productive businesses. Experience shows, this isn't an automatism very commonly. Additional income is generated only if the revenue is made from outside the community. Typically added value is created by subsequent processing of commodities. Exemplary: coffee roasting, fruit drying, freezing fish, ... |
| | | | |
| − | ► find more information here: [[Micro_Hydro_Power_(MHP)_Plants#Use_of_Micro_Hydro_Power_Plants|Micro Hydro Power (MHP) Plants - Use of MHP]] | + | ► find more information here: [[Micro Hydro Power (MHP) Plants#Use of Micro Hydro Power Plants|Micro Hydro Power (MHP) Plants - Use of MHP]] |
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| | [[Hydro Power Basics#toc|►Go to Top]] | | [[Hydro Power Basics#toc|►Go to Top]] |
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| | Cash usually is a scarce resource in rural areas of development countries. Part of a feasibility study has to be: how high tariffs have to be set to cover the costs. Its a must to, at least, break even operation & maintenance expenses. This money has to come from the users for electricity or el. services. A mhp can operate many decades if tariffs cover repair costs. In the long run a mhp's management is the crucial factor for its success. | | Cash usually is a scarce resource in rural areas of development countries. Part of a feasibility study has to be: how high tariffs have to be set to cover the costs. Its a must to, at least, break even operation & maintenance expenses. This money has to come from the users for electricity or el. services. A mhp can operate many decades if tariffs cover repair costs. In the long run a mhp's management is the crucial factor for its success. |
| | | | |
| − | ► find more information here: [[Micro_Hydro_Power_(MHP)_Plants#Costs|Micro Hydro Power (MHP) Plants - Costs]] | + | ► Find more information here: [[Micro Hydro Power (MHP) Plants#Costs|Micro Hydro Power (MHP) Plants - Costs]] |
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| | [[Hydro Power Basics#toc|►Go to Top]] | | [[Hydro Power Basics#toc|►Go to Top]] |
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| | Examples: Compare the cost for oil wig lighting with a single bulb. Compare "luxury" expenses with the comfort of el. lighting (cigarettes, drinking, ...). Explain the management function like how to run a business. Minimally the revenue has to cover the expenses. Check download section for an excel-tool which shows cost coverage. | | Examples: Compare the cost for oil wig lighting with a single bulb. Compare "luxury" expenses with the comfort of el. lighting (cigarettes, drinking, ...). Explain the management function like how to run a business. Minimally the revenue has to cover the expenses. Check download section for an excel-tool which shows cost coverage. |
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| − | Links: [[Tariffs|Tariffs]], [[Metering and Billing Systems|Metering and Billing]] | + | ► Links: [[Tariffs|Tariffs]], [[Metering and Billing Systems|Metering and Billing]] |
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| | [[Hydro Power Basics#toc|►Go to Top]] | | [[Hydro Power Basics#toc|►Go to Top]] |
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| | <br/> | | <br/> |
| | </div> | | </div> |
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| |
| | = Further Information<br/> = | | = Further Information<br/> = |
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| | *[http://practicalaction.org/hydro-power-answers practicalaction.org/hydro-power-answers] | | *[http://practicalaction.org/hydro-power-answers practicalaction.org/hydro-power-answers] |
| | *For more links on MHP, click [[Micro Hydro Power (MHP) - Further Links|here]]. | | *For more links on MHP, click [[Micro Hydro Power (MHP) - Further Links|here]]. |
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| − | [[Hydro Power Basics#toc|►Go to Top]]
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| | <references /> | | <references /> |
| − | </div>
| |
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| | + | [[Category:Hydro]] |
| | + | [[Category:Hydro_(large)]] |
| | [[Category:Productive_Use]] | | [[Category:Productive_Use]] |
| − | [[Category:Hydro_(large)]]
| |
| − | [[Category:Hydro]]
| |
A mass of water moving down a height difference contains energy. This can be harvested. Moving water drives some waterwheel / turbine. This rotation either drives machinery directly (e.g. mill, pump, hammer, thresher, ...) or is coupled with a generator which produces electric power.
Hydro power is probably the first form of automated power production which is not human / animal driven. Moving a grind stone for milling first, developed into the driving of an electrical generator. Next to steam it was for long the main power source for electricity.Its continual availability does not require any power storage (unlike wind / solar power). It is mainly mechanical hardware. This makes it relative easy to understand and repair-/maintainable. In smaller units its environmental impact becomes neglect-able (see: environmental impact assessment and pros and cons of micro hydropower).
These specific conditions limit generalising and standartisation of "how to install hydropower plants". Choosing the right location and planning requires some specific knowledge. With knowledge of water flow and height difference the potential power can be estimated.
Wrong data occurs frequently. Confirmation of existing data is highly recommended!
By measuring total height step by step, it's crucial to do the bearing strictly horizontally. Ensure that by using a level or a water filled hose. Widely available are hoses and pressure gauges which allow the easiest method of height measurement. As longer the hose as less steps have to be taken to measure the total head.
Hydropower installations can be classified by size of power output, although the power output is only an approximate diversion between different classes. There is no international consensus for setting the size threshold between small and large hydropower.
The German Federal Ministry for Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety mentioned that a SHP is <1 MW, everything above is a large hydro electric plant and usually comes along with a large dam. The International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD) defines a large dam as a dam with a height of 15 m or more from the foundation. If dams are between 5-15 m high and have a reservoir volume of more than 3 million m3, they are also classified as large dams. Using this definition, there are over 45 000 large dams around the world.
There is no binding definition how mini hydro power output is to be classified. Rules for communication avoiding misunderstandings: Generally the terms can be used "downwards compatible". Pico- is also Mini- but not visa versa. Specific terms (Pico, Family) should be used only if they are required to indicate specifics. The spectrum needs higher diversification as smaller it becomes as there are certain differences in technique, usage, applicability and the grade of of ability to replicate them.
Classification according to size has led to concepts such as ‘small hydro’ and ‘large hydro’, based on installed capacity measured in MW as the defining criterion. Defining hydropower by size is somewhat arbitrary, as there are no clear relationships between installed capacity and general properties of hydro power or its impacts. Hydro power comes in manifold project types (see Classification By Facility Type) and is a highly site-specific technology, where each project is a tailor-made outcome for a particular location within a given river basin to meet specific needs for energy and water management services.
However, larger facilities will tend to have lower costs on a USD/kW basis due to economies of scale, even if that tendency will only hold on average. Moreover, one large-scale hydropower project of 2,000 MW located in a remote area of one river basin might have fewer negative impacts than the cumulative impacts of four hundred 5 MW hydropower projects in many river basins (see also Negative Environmental Impacts
In addition, there is a fourth category called in-stream technology, which is a young and less-developed technology.
Storage HPPs require high dams and big storage areas to be flooded. Such is usually the case in big infrastructure projects including the known environmental impacts. Small and micro hydropower usually avoids those but utilizes water that runs of a river.
In 2010, in 161 countries hydropower is installed making up a worldwide installed hydro electric capacity of 926 GW which provide one-fifth of the world's electricity supply. Out of these 161 countries five countries make up more than the half of the world's hydropower production: China (~200 GW), Canada (74.4 GW), Brasil (84 GW), the USA (78.2 GW) and Russia (49.7 GW).
Often hydropower is the main or even only source for electricity production in developing countries.
Any other conventional energy source requires steady fuel. Such, like coal, gas or oil has to be purchased.
Hydropower offers a significant potential of renewable energy production. In 2009 electricity production from hydropower was about 16% of the global electricity production. The undeveloped capacity ranges from 30% in Europe up to 88% in Africa.
Small hydropower potential is given in hilly or mountainous regions, where rivers do not fall dry during the year.
Where gravity fed irrigation is practiced small and micro power plants find suiting conditions.
Mountainous regions often have bad infrastructure and are least to be connected to a electric grid. If there is water available it may be a suitable source for decentralised hydro power electrification. Such setups may even get support from governmental or major electricity supplier. The costs to connect remote areas are high, whereby the revenue, due to little amount of electricity utilised, is low.
Hydropower usually operates 24 h / day. Most mhp's are connected by a grid to their consumers. If a connection towards the national or main grid is available, electricity can be fed in there. Often micro or pico hydropower units are installed in remote areas. There they feed an isolated grid. In such grid the MHP is usually the only power source. The power produced has to be leveled equal with the power consumed (see controller).
Battery storage is no must like at solar or wind power projects. This is a big advantage as it reduces costs and maintenance significantly. Charging stations can nevertheless extend a mhp's effectiveness by utilising power in times of low demand (late night). Like this, even consumers which are too far from the station to be connected by transmission cable can be served via rechargeable batteries.
Small hydropower plants usually use (part-) river flow as driving force. Storage basins or even dams can buffer water. So demand peaks or (short) periods of water shortage can be bridged. As such infrastructures is costly and sophisticated, it's only used if there is a clear financial revenue; e.g. electricity supply for remote industries. Standard elements for mhp
