|
|
| Line 26: |
Line 26: |
| | | | |
| | | | |
| − | = <br/><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 205)"></span>Regulations and recommended maximum concentrations of PM and CO<br/> = | + | |
| | + | = <br/><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 205);"></span>Regulations and recommended maximum concentrations of PM and CO<br/> = |
| | Due to the severe health risks of air pollutants, many governments and international organisations have defined maximum concentrations of pollutants for emissions allowed from certain types of pollution sources, for the ambient air (immissions) and for workplaces or short periods of exposure. This chapter only presents the data for PM and CO as they are most widely used to measure the degree of air pollution.<br/> | | Due to the severe health risks of air pollutants, many governments and international organisations have defined maximum concentrations of pollutants for emissions allowed from certain types of pollution sources, for the ambient air (immissions) and for workplaces or short periods of exposure. This chapter only presents the data for PM and CO as they are most widely used to measure the degree of air pollution.<br/> |
| | | | |
| | The following table gives an overview about current standards.<ref>Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particulates#Regulation; http://ec.europa.eu/environment/air/quality/legislation/directive.htm; </ref><br/> | | The following table gives an overview about current standards.<ref>Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particulates#Regulation; http://ec.europa.eu/environment/air/quality/legislation/directive.htm; </ref><br/> |
| | + | |
| | + | <br/> |
| | | | |
| | <br/> | | <br/> |
| | | | |
| | | | |
| − | {| cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1" border="1" style="width: 100%" | + | {| style="width: 100%;" border="1" cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1" |
| | |- | | |- |
| | | '''Pollutant''' | | | '''Pollutant''' |
| Line 43: |
Line 46: |
| | | PM<sub>10</sub> | | | PM<sub>10</sub> |
| | | | | | |
| − | {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" border="0" style="width: 126px; width: 127px" | + | {| style="width: 127px;" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | | style="height: 17px; width: 127px; height: 17px" | 150 μg/m³ | + | | style="width: 127px; height: 17px;" | 150 μg/m³ |
| | |} | | |} |
| | | | | | |
| − | {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" border="0" style="width: 95px; width: 95px" | + | {| style="width: 95px;" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | | style="height: 17px; width: 95px; height: 17px" | 24-hour | + | | style="width: 95px; height: 17px;" | 24-hour |
| | |} | | |} |
| | | USA | | | USA |
| Line 56: |
Line 59: |
| | | <br/> | | | <br/> |
| | | | | | |
| − | {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" border="0" style="width: 126px; width: 127px" | + | {| style="width: 127px;" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | | style="height: 17px; width: 127px; height: 17px" | 50 μg/m³ | + | | style="width: 127px; height: 17px;" | 50 μg/m³ |
| | |} | | |} |
| | | | | | |
| − | {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" border="0" style="width: 95px; width: 95px" | + | {| style="width: 95px;" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | | style="height: 17px; width: 95px; height: 17px" | 24-hour | + | | style="width: 95px; height: 17px;" | 24-hour |
| | |} | | |} |
| | | EU | | | EU |
| Line 69: |
Line 72: |
| | | <br/> | | | <br/> |
| | | | | | |
| − | {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" border="0" style="width: 126px; width: 127px" | + | {| style="width: 127px;" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | | style="height: 17px; width: 127px; height: 17px" | 40 μg/m³ | + | | style="width: 127px; height: 17px;" | 40 μg/m³ |
| | |} | | |} |
| | | | | | |
| − | {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" border="0" style="width: 95px; width: 95px" | + | {| style="width: 95px;" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | | style="height: 17px; width: 95px; height: 17px" | annual | + | | style="width: 95px; height: 17px;" | annual |
| | |} | | |} |
| | | | | | |
| − | {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" border="0" style="width: 99px; width: 99px" | + | {| style="width: 99px;" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | | style="height: 17px; width: 99px; height: 17px" | EU | + | | style="width: 99px; height: 17px;" | EU |
| | |} | | |} |
| | |- | | |- |
| | | <br/> | | | <br/> |
| | | | | | |
| − | {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" border="0" style="width: 126px; width: 127px" | + | {| style="width: 127px;" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | | style="height: 17px; width: 127px; height: 17px" | 150 μg/m³ | + | | style="width: 127px; height: 17px;" | 150 μg/m³ |
| | |} | | |} |
| | | | | | |
| − | {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" border="0" style="width: 95px; width: 95px" | + | {| style="width: 95px;" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | | style="height: 17px; width: 95px; height: 17px" | 24 hrs | + | | style="width: 95px; height: 17px;" | 24 hrs |
| | |} | | |} |
| | | | | | |
| − | {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" border="0" style="width: 99px; width: 99px" | + | {| style="width: 99px;" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | | style="height: 17px; width: 99px; height: 17px" | China | + | | style="width: 99px; height: 17px;" | China |
| | |} | | |} |
| | |- | | |- |
| | | <br/> | | | <br/> |
| | | | | | |
| − | {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" border="0" style="width: 126px; width: 127px" | + | {| style="width: 127px;" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | | style="height: 17px; width: 127px; height: 17px" | 70 μg/m³ | + | | style="width: 127px; height: 17px;" | 70 μg/m³ |
| | |} | | |} |
| | | | | | |
| − | {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" border="0" style="width: 95px; width: 95px" | + | {| style="width: 95px;" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | | style="height: 17px; width: 95px; height: 17px" | annual | + | | style="width: 95px; height: 17px;" | annual |
| | |} | | |} |
| | | | | | |
| − | {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" border="0" style="width: 99px; width: 99px" | + | {| style="width: 99px;" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | | style="height: 17px; width: 99px; height: 17px" | China | + | | style="width: 99px; height: 17px;" | China |
| | |} | | |} |
| | + | |- |
| | + | | <br/> |
| | + | | 50 μg/m³ |
| | + | | 24 hrs |
| | + | | WHO |
| | + | |- |
| | + | | <br/> |
| | + | | 20 μg/m³ |
| | + | | annual |
| | + | | WHO |
| | |- | | |- |
| | | PM<sub>2.5</sub> | | | PM<sub>2.5</sub> |
| | | | | | |
| − | {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" border="0" style="width: 126px; width: 127px" | + | {| style="width: 127px;" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | | style="height: 17px; width: 127px; height: 17px" | 35 μg/m³ | + | | style="width: 127px; height: 17px;" | 35 μg/m³ |
| | |} | | |} |
| | | | | | |
| − | {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" border="0" style="width: 95px; width: 95px" | + | {| style="width: 95px;" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | | style="height: 17px; width: 95px; height: 17px" | 24-hour | + | | style="width: 95px; height: 17px;" | 24-hour |
| | |} | | |} |
| | | USA | | | USA |
| Line 133: |
Line 146: |
| | | <br/> | | | <br/> |
| | | | | | |
| − | {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" border="0" style="width: 126px; width: 127px" | + | {| style="width: 127px;" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | | style="height: 17px; width: 127px; height: 17px" | 15 μg/m³c | + | | style="width: 127px; height: 17px;" | 15 μg/m³c |
| | |} | | |} |
| | | | | | |
| − | {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" border="0" style="width: 95px; width: 95px" | + | {| style="width: 95px;" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | | style="height: 17px; width: 95px; height: 17px" | annual | + | | style="width: 95px; height: 17px;" | annual |
| | |} | | |} |
| | | USA | | | USA |
| Line 146: |
Line 159: |
| | | <br/> | | | <br/> |
| | | | | | |
| − | {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" border="0" style="width: 126px; width: 127px" | + | {| style="width: 127px;" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | | style="height: 17px; width: 127px; height: 17px" | 25 μg/m³c | + | | style="width: 127px; height: 17px;" | 25 μg/m³c |
| | |} | | |} |
| | | annual | | | annual |
| Line 155: |
Line 168: |
| | | <br/> | | | <br/> |
| | | | | | |
| − | {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" border="0" style="width: 126px; width: 127px" | + | {| style="width: 127px;" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | | style="height: 17px; width: 127px; height: 17px" | 75 μg/m³c | + | | style="width: 127px; height: 17px;" | 75 μg/m³c |
| | |} | | |} |
| | | | | | |
| − | {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" border="0" style="width: 95px; width: 95px" | + | {| style="width: 95px;" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | | style="height: 17px; width: 95px; height: 17px" | 24 hours | + | | style="width: 95px; height: 17px;" | 24 hours |
| | |} | | |} |
| | | | | | |
| − | {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" border="0" style="width: 99px; width: 99px" | + | {| style="width: 99px;" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | | style="height: 17px; width: 99px; height: 17px" | China | + | | style="width: 99px; height: 17px;" | China |
| | |} | | |} |
| | |- | | |- |
| | | <br/> | | | <br/> |
| | | | | | |
| − | {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" border="0" style="width: 126px; width: 127px" | + | {| style="width: 127px;" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | | style="height: 17px; width: 127px; height: 17px" | 35 μg/m³c | + | | style="width: 127px; height: 17px;" | 35 μg/m³c |
| | |} | | |} |
| | | annual | | | annual |
| | | China | | | China |
| | + | |- |
| | + | | <br/> |
| | + | | 25 μg/m³c |
| | + | | 24 hrs |
| | + | | WHO |
| | + | |- |
| | + | | <br/> |
| | + | | 10 μg/m³c |
| | + | | annual |
| | + | | WHO |
| | |- | | |- |
| | | CO | | | CO |
| | | | | | |
| − | {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" border="0" style="width: 126px; width: 127px" | + | {| style="width: 127px;" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | | style="height: 17px; width: 127px; height: 17px" | 35 ppm (40 mg/m³) | + | | style="width: 127px; height: 17px;" | 35 ppm (40 mg/m³) |
| | |} | | |} |
| | | | | | |
| − | {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" border="0" style="width: 95px; width: 95px" | + | {| style="width: 95px;" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | | style="height: 17px; width: 95px; height: 17px" | 1-hour | + | | style="width: 95px; height: 17px;" | 1-hour |
| | |} | | |} |
| | | | | | |
| − | {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" border="0" style="width: 99px; width: 99px" | + | {| style="width: 99px;" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | | style="height: 17px; width: 99px; height: 17px" | USA | + | | style="width: 99px; height: 17px;" | USA |
| | |} | | |} |
| | |- | | |- |
| | | <br/> | | | <br/> |
| | | | | | |
| − | {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" border="0" style="width: 126px; width: 127px" | + | {| style="width: 127px;" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | | style="height: 17px; width: 127px; height: 17px" | 9 ppm (10 mg/m³) | + | | style="width: 127px; height: 17px;" | 9 ppm (10 mg/m³) |
| | |} | | |} |
| | | 8-hour | | | 8-hour |
| Line 207: |
Line 230: |
| | | <br/> | | | <br/> |
| | | | | | |
| − | {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" border="0" style="width: 126px; width: 127px" | + | {| style="width: 127px;" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | | style="height: 17px; width: 127px; height: 17px" | 9 ppm (10 mg/m³) | + | | style="width: 127px; height: 17px;" | 9 ppm (10 mg/m³) |
| | |} | | |} |
| | | | | | |
| − | {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" border="0" style="width: 95px; width: 95px" | + | {| style="width: 95px;" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | | style="height: 17px; width: 95px; height: 17px" | 1-hour | + | | style="width: 95px; height: 17px;" | 1-hour |
| | |} | | |} |
| | | EU | | | EU |
| Line 220: |
Line 243: |
| | | <br/> | | | <br/> |
| | | | | | |
| − | {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" border="0" style="width: 126px; width: 127px" | + | {| style="width: 127px;" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | | style="height: 17px; width: 127px; height: 17px" | 10-20 mg/m³ | + | | style="width: 127px; height: 17px;" | 10-20 mg/m³ |
| | |} | | |} |
| | | | | | |
| − | {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" border="0" style="width: 95px; width: 95px" | + | {| style="width: 95px;" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | | style="height: 17px; width: 95px; height: 17px" | 1-hour | + | | style="width: 95px; height: 17px;" | 1-hour |
| | |} | | |} |
| | | China | | | China |
| | + | |- |
| | + | | <br/> |
| | + | | 35 mg/m³ |
| | + | | 1-hour |
| | + | | WHO |
| | + | |- |
| | + | | <br/> |
| | + | | 10 mg/m³ |
| | + | | 8-hours |
| | + | | WHO |
| | |} | | |} |
| | The table shows a certain variability of the air quality standards in different countries and regions. The variability is mainly caused by different short and long term air quality targets of the countries, the path to obtain these targets considering resources, location, economic structure etc.<br/> | | The table shows a certain variability of the air quality standards in different countries and regions. The variability is mainly caused by different short and long term air quality targets of the countries, the path to obtain these targets considering resources, location, economic structure etc.<br/> |
| − |
| |
| | | | |
| | | | |
Indoor sources of IAP/HAP are cooking and heating with solid fuels, burning candles or oil lamps, fuel-burning space heaters and tobacco smoke. Of special importance is inefficient and insufficiently vented cooking and heating with solid fuels (biomass and coal) on simple stoves or open fires. Burning these fuels in inefficient stoves results in poor combustion efficiency and high levels of emissions of health-damaging pollutants including both fine and coarse particulate matter, carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and a variety of organic air pollutants (e.g., formaldehyde, 1,3-butadiene, benzene, acetaldehyde, acrolein, phenols, pyrene, benzopyrene, benzo(a)pyrene, dibenzopyrenes, dibenzocarbazoles, and cresols). In a typical solid fuel stove, about 6–20% of the solid fuel is converted into toxic emissions (by mass). The exact quantity and relative composition of the emissions is determined by various factors such as the fuel type and moisture content, stove type and the way the stove and fuel is used by the cook. [2] Most measurements of emissions and the corresponding literature focus on the concentration of particulate matter of different sizes (e.g., PM2.5, PM10) and carbon monoxide (CO), which are main products of incomplete combustion and are considered to pose the greatest health risk.
According to estimations 2.9 billion people used solid fuels (mainly biomass, in the form of wood, charcol, dung, and crop residue) for cooking and other heating purposes in 2012 [3]. Around 80% of them reside in rural and 20% in urban areas. Because much of the burning of solid fuels is carried out indoors in environments with insufficient ventilation, millions of people, primarily poor women and children face serious health risks.
According to WHO there is consistent evidence that exposure to household air pollution is a major risk factor leading to acute lower respiratory infections (ALRI) in children under five, and ischaemic heart disease (IHD), stroke, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and lung cancer (LC) in adults.[4]In addition, the smoke from burning biomass is also causing eye irritations.
Smoke in form of particulate matter with particle diameters of less than 10 micrometers in diameter penetrate deep into the lungs. At sizes of 2.5 micrometers particles can enter the finest parts of the lungs. Ultrafine particles get even into the bloodstream. Exposure to particulate matter has short-term effects such as nose, throat and lung irritation, coughing, sneezing, runny nose and shortness of breath as well as more severe effects on the respiratory system such as pneumonia and asthma. Children are especially affected by ALRI. A child exposed to smoke in the home is two to three times more likely to catch pneumonia. Globally, pneumonia and other acute lower respiratory infections represent the single most important cause of death in children under five years. Exposure to IAP more than doubles the risk of pneumonia. Women exposed to indoor smoke are three times as likely to suffer from chronic bronchitis and other obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD) than women who cook and heat with electricity, gas and other cleaner fuels. In addition, there are indications, that indoor smoke is also causing tuberculosis, cataracts, low birth weight and high infant mortality.
Most of the victims of IAP are women and children, as they are exposed to the source of indoor smoke and the large associated health risks the most. Women spend daily three to seven hours near the stove with their kids breathing polluted air during cooking. At the early age of the children, when they are newborns or infants, their immature lungs and immune systems make them particularly vulnerable. Over 10 million children aged under five years die every year – 99% of them in developing countries.[5]
According to Global Disease Study 2010 the relationship between exposure to pollutants and health effects is often not linear. In the case of PM2.5 an exposure response model estimating health effects by using relative risk (RR) information for ALRI, IHD,stroke,COPD,and LC is assuming a kind of exponential saturation curve. The health risks rise significantly with increasing concentrations of PM2.5at lower levels. The effect becomes less pronounced at higher PM2.5 exposure levels. This has major implications for strategies to reduce health risks by controlling air pollution at high exposure concentration levels.
Due to the severe health risks of air pollutants, many governments and international organisations have defined maximum concentrations of pollutants for emissions allowed from certain types of pollution sources, for the ambient air (immissions) and for workplaces or short periods of exposure. This chapter only presents the data for PM and CO as they are most widely used to measure the degree of air pollution.
The table shows a certain variability of the air quality standards in different countries and regions. The variability is mainly caused by different short and long term air quality targets of the countries, the path to obtain these targets considering resources, location, economic structure etc.
The most effective way to reduce smoke in the home is to switch to cleaner fuels (liquid petroleum gas, kerosene or biogas). It’s also possible to improve the air quality and promote energy efficiency and environmental sustainability by promoting improved cooking stoves.
The huge majority of people in developing countries who are still cooking on open fires are often too poor to change to improved stoves and cleaner fuels or have no access to modern combustibles. Where the use of biomass, wood or charcoal remains predominant, and the indoor environment remains subject to high levels of smoke, other alternatives have to be found to improve air quality and related health issues.
Reaching this goal to reduce this extremely harmful IAP would significantly help to achieve several of the internationally agreed Millennium Development Goals[8], especially Goal 4[9][10]. Reduce child mortality with the target to decrease by two thirds, between 1990 and 2015, the under-five mortality rate. Since 1990, the mortality rate for children under age five in developing countries dropped by 28% (from 100 deaths per 1,000 live births to 72 in 2008), but not quickly enough to reach the target by 2015. Many organizations are already working on this field to make improvements in this issue.
