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| | = Principle of Hydropower<br/> = | | = Principle of Hydropower<br/> = |
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| − | A mass of water moving down a height difference contains energy. This can be harvested. Moving water drives some waterwheel/turbine. This rotation either drives machinery directly (e.g. mill, pump, hammer, thresher, ...) or is coupled with a generator which produces electric power.<br/>Hydropower is probably the first form of automated power production which is not human/animal driven. Moving a grind stone for milling first, developed into the driving of an electrical generator. Next to steam it was for long the main power source for electricity.<br/>Its continual availability does not require any power storage (unlike wind/solar power). It is mainly mechanical hardware. This makes it relative easy to understand and repair-/maintainable. In smaller units its environmental impact becomes neglect-able (see: [http://energypedia.info/index.php/Environmental_impact_assessment environmental impact assessment] and [[Pros and Cons - MHP|pros and cons of micro hydropower]]) .<br/>In order to create electricity from hydropower, two parameters are critical: | + | A mass of water moving down a height difference contains energy. This can be harvested. Moving water drives some waterwheel/turbine. This rotation either drives machinery directly (e.g. mill, pump, hammer, thresher, ...) or is coupled with a generator which produces electric power. |
| | + | |
| | + | Hydropower is probably the first form of automated power production which is not human/animal driven. Moving a grind stone for milling first, developed into the driving of an electrical generator. Next to steam it was for long the main power source for electricity. |
| | + | |
| | + | Its continual availability does not require any power storage (unlike wind/solar power). It is mainly mechanical hardware. This makes it relative easy to understand and repair-/maintainable. In smaller units its environmental impact becomes neglect-able (see: [http://energypedia.info/index.php/Environmental_impact_assessment environmental impact assessment] and [[Pros and Cons - MHP|pros and cons of micro hydropower]]) . |
| | + | |
| | + | '''In order to create electricity from hydropower, two parameters are critica'''l: |
| | *'''Flow'''; or the minimum amount of water that is constantly available throughout the entire year | | *'''Flow'''; or the minimum amount of water that is constantly available throughout the entire year |
| | *'''Head'''; the difference in height | | *'''Head'''; the difference in height |
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| | == Measuring Head & Flow<br/> == | | == Measuring Head & Flow<br/> == |
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| − | <span>First step to judge a sites hydropower potential is to measure/estimate head and flow.</span> | + | <span>The first step to judge a sites hydropower potential is to measure/estimate head and flow.</span> |
| | *<span>Head (the vertical distance between the intake and turbine)</span> | | *<span>Head (the vertical distance between the intake and turbine)</span> |
| | *Flow (how much water comes down the stream) | | *Flow (how much water comes down the stream) |
| | + | |
| | + | <br/> |
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| | Head is very often exaggerated as is the flow rate, which varies over the year! | | Head is very often exaggerated as is the flow rate, which varies over the year! |
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| | <span>Head and flow are the two most important facts of a hydro site. This will determine everything about the hydro system—volume of civil constructions, pipeline size, turbine type and power output. </span>Inaccurate measurements result in low efficiency, high cost and scarcity of power. | | <span>Head and flow are the two most important facts of a hydro site. This will determine everything about the hydro system—volume of civil constructions, pipeline size, turbine type and power output. </span>Inaccurate measurements result in low efficiency, high cost and scarcity of power. |
| | | | |
| − | For sophisticated methods how to inquire a sites feasibility, please check the [http://energypedia.info/index.php/MHP_Manuals Manuals] section.<br/>"[http://energypedia.info/index.php/File:Laymans_book_-_how_to_develop_a_small_hydro_site_128-266.pdf Layman's book: How to develop a Small Hydro Site]" may be a good start. | + | <br/> |
| | + | *For sophisticated methods how to inquire a sites feasibility, please check the [http://energypedia.info/index.php/MHP_Manuals Manuals] section. |
| | + | *"[http://energypedia.info/index.php/File:Laymans_book_-_how_to_develop_a_small_hydro_site_128-266.pdf Layman's book: How to develop a Small Hydro Site]" may be a good start. |
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| | <br/> | | <br/> |
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| − | === Methods of head and flow measurement without sophisticated tools === | + | === Methods of Head and Flow Measurement without Sophisticated Tools === |
| | | | |
| − | '''<u><span style="font-weight: bold">E</span>stimation of height</u>''' can be done easiest if there is a steep slope (waterfall)by rope. Principle of a step by step head measurement: [[File:Head measurement.jpg|thumb|center|500px|Head measurement.jpg|alt=Head measurement.jpg]] | + | <br/> |
| | + | *'''<u><span style="font-weight: bold">E</span>stimation of height</u>''' can be done easiest if there is a steep slope (waterfall)by rope. Principle of a step by step head measurement:<br/> |
| | | | |
| − | By measuring total height step by step, it's crucial to do the bearing strictly horizontally. Ensure that by using a level or a water filled hose. Widely available are hoses and pressure gauges which allow the easiest method of height measurement. As longer the hose as less steps have to be taken to measure the total head.
| + | [[File:Head measurement.jpg|thumb|center|600px|Head measurement.jpg|alt=Head measurement.jpg]] |
| | | | |
| | <br/> | | <br/> |
| | | | |
| − | [[File:Height measure by level.jpg|thumb|center|400px|Height measure by level.jpg|alt=Height measure by level.jpg]]
| + | By measuring total height step by step, it's crucial to do the bearing strictly horizontally. Ensure that by using a level or a water filled hose. Widely available are hoses and pressure gauges which allow the easiest method of height measurement. As longer the hose as less steps have to be taken to measure the total head. |
| | | | |
| − | [[File:Height measure by hose.jpg|thumb|center|400px|Height measure by hose.jpg|alt=Height measure by hose.jpg]]
| + | <br/> |
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| − | [[File:Head by pressure gauge.jpg|thumb|center|400px|Head by pressure gauge.jpg|alt=Head by pressure gauge.jpg]] | + | {| border="0" align="left" cellspacing="1" cellpadding="5" style="width: 500px;" |
| | + | |- |
| | + | | [[File:Height measure by level.jpg|thumb|left|350px|Height measure by level|alt=Height measure by level.jpg]] |
| | + | | [[File:Head by pressure gauge.jpg|thumb|left|350px|Head by pressure gauge|alt=Head by pressure gauge.jpg]] |
| | + | | [[File:Height measure by hose.jpg|thumb|left|350px|Height measure by hose|alt=Height measure by hose.jpg]] |
| | + | |} |
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| | <br/> | | <br/> |
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| | <br/> | | <br/> |
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| − | <u>'''Estimation of flow'''</u> is very difficult without measurement. A quick and easy way to measure is the '''floating method''' | + | <br/> |
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| | + | *<u>'''Estimation of flow'''</u> is very difficult without measurement. A quick and easy way to measure is the '''floating method'''<br/> |
| | | | |
| | <u>First</u>, measure the waters speed at an steady flowing part of the river. Therefore drop some item and stop the time it needs for a certain distance to float. <u>Second</u>, do a sketch of the rivers cross section by measuring its depth every 20-50 cm so you come up with a grid showing the rivers profile from side to side. With this data its cross sections area can be calculated easily. <u>Finally</u> the flow volume results from (water) speed x (section) area. | | <u>First</u>, measure the waters speed at an steady flowing part of the river. Therefore drop some item and stop the time it needs for a certain distance to float. <u>Second</u>, do a sketch of the rivers cross section by measuring its depth every 20-50 cm so you come up with a grid showing the rivers profile from side to side. With this data its cross sections area can be calculated easily. <u>Finally</u> the flow volume results from (water) speed x (section) area. |
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| − | [[File:Flow measurement.jpg|thumb|center|500px|Flow measurement.jpg|alt=Flow measurement.jpg]] | + | <br/> |
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| | + | [[File:Flow measurement.jpg|thumb|center|600px|Flow measurement.jpg|alt=Flow measurement.jpg]] |
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| | Example: | | Example: |
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| | = Classification of Hydropower = | | = Classification of Hydropower = |
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| − | == by Size == | + | == By Size == |
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| | Hydropower installations can be classified by size of power output, although the power output is only an approximate diversion between different classes. There is no international consensus for setting the size threshold between small and large hydropower. | | Hydropower installations can be classified by size of power output, although the power output is only an approximate diversion between different classes. There is no international consensus for setting the size threshold between small and large hydropower. |
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| | For the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) and the European Small Hydropower Association (ESHA) and the International Association for Small Hydro a capacity of up to '''10''' '''MW''' total is becoming the generally accepted norm for small hydropower plants (SHP). In China, it can refer to capacities of up to 25 MW, in India up to 15 MW and in Sweden small means up to 1.5 MW, in Canada 'small' can refer to upper limit capacities of between 20 and 25 MW, and in the United States 'small' can mean 30 MW. | | For the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) and the European Small Hydropower Association (ESHA) and the International Association for Small Hydro a capacity of up to '''10''' '''MW''' total is becoming the generally accepted norm for small hydropower plants (SHP). In China, it can refer to capacities of up to 25 MW, in India up to 15 MW and in Sweden small means up to 1.5 MW, in Canada 'small' can refer to upper limit capacities of between 20 and 25 MW, and in the United States 'small' can mean 30 MW. |
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| − | The German Federal Ministry for Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety mentioned that a SHP is < 1 MW, everything above is a large hydro electric plant and usually comes along with a large dam. The International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD) defines a large dam as a dam with a height of 15 m or more from the foundation. If dams are between 5-15 m high and have a reservoir volume of more than 3 million m<sup>3</sup>, they are also classified as large dams. Using this definition, there are over 45 000 large dams around the world.<br/>Small hydro can be further subdivided into mini, micro and pico: | + | The German Federal Ministry for Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety mentioned that a SHP is < 1 MW, everything above is a large hydro electric plant and usually comes along with a large dam. The International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD) defines a large dam as a dam with a height of 15 m or more from the foundation. If dams are between 5-15 m high and have a reservoir volume of more than 3 million m<sup>3</sup>, they are also classified as large dams. Using this definition, there are over 45 000 large dams around the world.<br/> |
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| | <br/> | | <br/> |
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| − | {| cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1" border="0" style="width: 500px;" class="FCK__ShowTableBorders" | + | <u>Small hydro can be further subdivided into mini, micro and pico:</u> |
| | + | |
| | + | {| cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1" border="0" style="width: 100%;" class="FCK__ShowTableBorders" |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | | Mini (MH)<br/> | + | | |
| | + | *'''Mini (MH)'''<br/> |
| | + | |
| | | < 1 MW | | | < 1 MW |
| | | grid connected | | | grid connected |
| | | special know how required | | | special know how required |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | | Micro | + | | |
| | + | *'''Micro''' |
| | + | |
| | | < 100 kW | | | < 100 kW |
| | | partially grid con. | | | partially grid con. |
| | | professional know how required | | | professional know how required |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | | Pico (PH) | + | | |
| | + | *'''Pico (PH)''' |
| | + | |
| | | < 10 kW | | | < 10 kW |
| | | island grids | | | island grids |
| | | small series units produced locally; professional equipment available | | | small series units produced locally; professional equipment available |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | | Family (FH) | + | | |
| | + | *'''Family (FH)''' |
| | + | |
| | | < ~1 kW | | | < ~1 kW |
| | | single households/clusters | | | single households/clusters |
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| | There is no binding definition how Mini hydropower output is to be classified. Rules for communication avoiding misunderstandings: Generally the terms can be used "downwards compatible". Pico- is also Mini- but not visa versa. Specific terms (Pico, Family) should be used only if they are required to indicate specifics. The spectrum needs higher diversification as smaller it becomes as there are certain differences in technique, usage, applicability and the grade of of ability to replicate them. | | There is no binding definition how Mini hydropower output is to be classified. Rules for communication avoiding misunderstandings: Generally the terms can be used "downwards compatible". Pico- is also Mini- but not visa versa. Specific terms (Pico, Family) should be used only if they are required to indicate specifics. The spectrum needs higher diversification as smaller it becomes as there are certain differences in technique, usage, applicability and the grade of of ability to replicate them. |
| | + | <br/> |
| | | | |
| | '''Comments:''' | | '''Comments:''' |
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| | | | |
| | Classification according to size has led to concepts such as ‘small hydro’ and ‘large hydro’, based on installed capacity measured in MW as the defining criterion. Defining hydropower by size is somewhat arbitrary, as there are no clear relationships between installed capacity and general properties of hydropower or its impacts. Hydropower comes in manifold project types (see Classification [https://energypedia.info/index.php/Hydro_Power_basics#by_Facility_Type By Facility Type]) and is a highly site-specific technology, where each project is a tailor-made outcome for a particular location within a given river basin to meet specific needs for energy and water management services. | | Classification according to size has led to concepts such as ‘small hydro’ and ‘large hydro’, based on installed capacity measured in MW as the defining criterion. Defining hydropower by size is somewhat arbitrary, as there are no clear relationships between installed capacity and general properties of hydropower or its impacts. Hydropower comes in manifold project types (see Classification [https://energypedia.info/index.php/Hydro_Power_basics#by_Facility_Type By Facility Type]) and is a highly site-specific technology, where each project is a tailor-made outcome for a particular location within a given river basin to meet specific needs for energy and water management services. |
| | + | |
| | + | <br/> |
| | | | |
| | '''Large hydropower developments''' involve large dams and huge water storage reservoirs. They are typically grid connected supplying large grids. Preference for large hydro is on the decline due to the high investment costs, long payback periods and huge environmental impacts (losses of arable land, forced migration, diseases and damage to biodiversity). Many [[Pros and Cons - MHP|social and environmental impacts]] are related to the impoundment and existence of a reservoir, and therefore are greater for 'large hydro' plants with reservoir. | | '''Large hydropower developments''' involve large dams and huge water storage reservoirs. They are typically grid connected supplying large grids. Preference for large hydro is on the decline due to the high investment costs, long payback periods and huge environmental impacts (losses of arable land, forced migration, diseases and damage to biodiversity). Many [[Pros and Cons - MHP|social and environmental impacts]] are related to the impoundment and existence of a reservoir, and therefore are greater for 'large hydro' plants with reservoir. |
| | + | |
| | + | <br/> |
| | | | |
| | '''Small hydropower stations '''are typically run-of-the-river. They combine the advantages of hydropower with those of decentralised power generation, without the disadvantages of large scale installations. [[Socio-economic and Environmental Impacts of MHP|Advantages]] include: low distribution costs, no/low environmental costs as with large hydro, low maintenance and local implementation and management. Power generated with small hydro station can be used for agro-processing, local lighting, water pumps and small businesses<ref name="Energy Technology">GTZ (2007): Eastern Africa Resource Base: GTZ Online Regional Energy Resource Base: Regional and Country Specific Energy Resource Database: I - Energy Technology</ref>. | | '''Small hydropower stations '''are typically run-of-the-river. They combine the advantages of hydropower with those of decentralised power generation, without the disadvantages of large scale installations. [[Socio-economic and Environmental Impacts of MHP|Advantages]] include: low distribution costs, no/low environmental costs as with large hydro, low maintenance and local implementation and management. Power generated with small hydro station can be used for agro-processing, local lighting, water pumps and small businesses<ref name="Energy Technology">GTZ (2007): Eastern Africa Resource Base: GTZ Online Regional Energy Resource Base: Regional and Country Specific Energy Resource Database: I - Energy Technology</ref>. |
| | + | |
| | + | <br/> |
| | | | |
| | The constructions and integration into local environments of Small Hydro Power (SHP) schemes typically takes less time and effort compared to large hydropower plants. For this reason, the deployment of SHPs is increasing in many parts of the world, especially in remote areas where other energy sources are not viable or are not economically attractive. | | The constructions and integration into local environments of Small Hydro Power (SHP) schemes typically takes less time and effort compared to large hydropower plants. For this reason, the deployment of SHPs is increasing in many parts of the world, especially in remote areas where other energy sources are not viable or are not economically attractive. |
| | + | |
| | + | <br/> |
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| | However, larger facilities will tend to have lower costs on a USD/kW basis due to economies of scale, even if that tendency will only hold on average. Moreover, one large-scale hydropower project of 2,000 MW located in a remote area of one river basin might have fewer negative impacts than the cumulative impacts of four hundred 5 MW hydropower projects in many river basins (see also [https://energypedia.info/index.php/Socio-economic_and_Environmental_Impacts_of_MHP#Negative_environmental_impacts Negative Environmental Impacts]). For that reason, even the cumulative relative environmental and social impacts of large versus small hydropower development remain unclear, and context dependent. '''General concepts like ‘small’ or ‘large hydro’ are not technically or scientifically rigorous indicators of impacts, economics or characteristics. Hydropower projects cover a continuum in scale, and it may be more useful to evaluate a hydropower project on its sustainability or economic performance, thus setting out more realistic indicators'''<ref>IPCC Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation, Chapter 5 Hydropower (2011). Prepared by Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [O. Edenhofer, R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, K. Seyboth, P. Matschoss, S. Kadner, T. Zwickel, P. Eickemeier, G. Hansen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow (eds)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 1075 pp.</ref>. | | However, larger facilities will tend to have lower costs on a USD/kW basis due to economies of scale, even if that tendency will only hold on average. Moreover, one large-scale hydropower project of 2,000 MW located in a remote area of one river basin might have fewer negative impacts than the cumulative impacts of four hundred 5 MW hydropower projects in many river basins (see also [https://energypedia.info/index.php/Socio-economic_and_Environmental_Impacts_of_MHP#Negative_environmental_impacts Negative Environmental Impacts]). For that reason, even the cumulative relative environmental and social impacts of large versus small hydropower development remain unclear, and context dependent. '''General concepts like ‘small’ or ‘large hydro’ are not technically or scientifically rigorous indicators of impacts, economics or characteristics. Hydropower projects cover a continuum in scale, and it may be more useful to evaluate a hydropower project on its sustainability or economic performance, thus setting out more realistic indicators'''<ref>IPCC Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation, Chapter 5 Hydropower (2011). Prepared by Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [O. Edenhofer, R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, K. Seyboth, P. Matschoss, S. Kadner, T. Zwickel, P. Eickemeier, G. Hansen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow (eds)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 1075 pp.</ref>. |
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| | <br/> | | <br/> |
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| − | == by Facility Type == | + | == By Facility Type == |
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| − | Hydropower plants can be classified in three categories according to operation and type of flow (see figure a-c).<br/>a) Run-of-river (RoR),<br/>b) storage (reservoir) and<br/>c) pumped storage HPPs all<br/>In addition, there is a fourth category (d) called in-stream technology, which is a young and less-developed technology. Whereas pumped storage HPPs are only economical attractive in large scales, run-of-river and storage can be small and large. | + | Hydropower plants can be classified in three categories according to operation and type of flow (see figure a-c). |
| | + | |
| | + | a) Run-of-river (RoR),<br/>b) storage (reservoir) and<br/>c) pumped storage HPPs all |
| | + | |
| | + | In addition, there is a fourth category (d) called in-stream technology, which is a young and less-developed technology. Whereas pumped storage HPPs are only economical attractive in large scales, run-of-river and storage can be small and large. |
| | | | |
| | <br/> | | <br/> |
| | | | |
| − | '''a) Run-of-River Hydropower Plant''' | + | <u>'''a) Run-of-River Hydropower Plant'''</u> |
| | | | |
| − | {| cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1" style="width: 800px;" align="left" | + | {| cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1" style="width: 100%;" align="left" |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | | [[File:Run-of-River Hydropower Plant.JPG|thumb|400px|Run-of-River Hydropower Plant|alt=Run-of-River Hydropower Plant]] | + | | [[File:Run-of-River Hydropower Plant.JPG|thumb|left|400px|Run-of-River Hydropower Plant|alt=Run-of-River Hydropower Plant]] |
| | | -RoR plant mainly produce energy from the available flow of the river, taking advantage of the natural elevation drop of a river<br/>- Therefore it is suitable for streams or rivers that have a minimum flow all year round or those that are regulated by a larger dam and reservoir upstream<br/>-Water is diverted into a penstock or pipe and channeled to the turbine and then returned to the river<br/>-RoR plants have either no storage or short-term storage, allowing for some adaptations to the demand profile<br/>-such reservoirs are usually smaller than those of reservoir hydro power plants but nevertheless dams can be ten to twenty meters high and can have gates to allow for water storage<br/>-power generation is dictated by local river flow conditions and thus depends on precipitation and runoff and may have substantial daily, monthly or seasonal variations<br/>-environmental impacts are generally lower than for similar-sized storage hydropower plants | | | -RoR plant mainly produce energy from the available flow of the river, taking advantage of the natural elevation drop of a river<br/>- Therefore it is suitable for streams or rivers that have a minimum flow all year round or those that are regulated by a larger dam and reservoir upstream<br/>-Water is diverted into a penstock or pipe and channeled to the turbine and then returned to the river<br/>-RoR plants have either no storage or short-term storage, allowing for some adaptations to the demand profile<br/>-such reservoirs are usually smaller than those of reservoir hydro power plants but nevertheless dams can be ten to twenty meters high and can have gates to allow for water storage<br/>-power generation is dictated by local river flow conditions and thus depends on precipitation and runoff and may have substantial daily, monthly or seasonal variations<br/>-environmental impacts are generally lower than for similar-sized storage hydropower plants |
| | |} | | |} |
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| | <br/><br/> | | <br/><br/> |
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| | + | <br/> |
| | <br/> | | <br/> |
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| − | '''b) Hydropower Plant with Reservoir''' | + | <u>'''b) Hydropower Plant with Reservoir'''</u> |
| − | | + | |
| − | <br/> | + | |
| | | | |
| − | {| cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1" style="width: 800px;" | + | {| cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1" style="width: 100%;" |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | | [[File:Hydropower Plant with Reservoir.JPG|thumb|400px|Hydropower Plant with reservoir|alt=Hydropower Plant with reservoir]] | + | | [[File:Hydropower Plant with Reservoir.JPG|thumb|left|400px|Hydropower Plant with reservoir|alt=Hydropower Plant with reservoir]] |
| | | -Hydropower projects with a reservoir (storage hydropower) store water behind a dam for times when river flow is low<br/>-therefore power generation is more stable and less variable than for RoR plants<br/>-the generating stations are located at the dam toe or further downstream, connected to the reservoir through tunnels or pipelines<br/>-type and design of reservoirs are decided by the landscape and in many parts of the world are inundated river valleys where the reservoir is an artificial lake<br/>-In geographies with mountain plateaus, high-altitude lakes make up another kind of reservoir<br/>-Reservoir hydropower plants can have major environmental and social impacts due to the flooding of land for the reservoir | | | -Hydropower projects with a reservoir (storage hydropower) store water behind a dam for times when river flow is low<br/>-therefore power generation is more stable and less variable than for RoR plants<br/>-the generating stations are located at the dam toe or further downstream, connected to the reservoir through tunnels or pipelines<br/>-type and design of reservoirs are decided by the landscape and in many parts of the world are inundated river valleys where the reservoir is an artificial lake<br/>-In geographies with mountain plateaus, high-altitude lakes make up another kind of reservoir<br/>-Reservoir hydropower plants can have major environmental and social impacts due to the flooding of land for the reservoir |
| | |} | | |} |
| | | | |
| − | <br/>'''c) Pump Storage Hydropower Plant''' | + | <br/><u>'''c) Pump Storage Hydropower Plant'''</u> |
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| − | {| cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1" border="0" style="width: 800px;" | + | {| cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1" border="0" style="width: 100%;" |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | | [[File:Pump Storage Project.JPG|thumb|400px|Pump Storage Project.JPG|alt=Pump Storage Project.JPG]] | + | | [[File:Pump Storage Project.JPG|thumb|left|400px|Pump Storage Project.JPG|alt=Pump Storage Project.JPG]] |
| | | -Pumped storage plants are not energy sources, instead they are storage devices<br/>-water is pumped from a lower reservoir into an upper reservoir, usually during off-peak hours, while flow is reversed to generate electricity during the daily peak load period or at other times of need<br/>-although the losses of the pumping process make such a plant a net energy consumer, the plant provides large-scale energy storage system benefits<br/>-pumped storage is the largest capacity form of grid energy storage now readily available worldwide | | | -Pumped storage plants are not energy sources, instead they are storage devices<br/>-water is pumped from a lower reservoir into an upper reservoir, usually during off-peak hours, while flow is reversed to generate electricity during the daily peak load period or at other times of need<br/>-although the losses of the pumping process make such a plant a net energy consumer, the plant provides large-scale energy storage system benefits<br/>-pumped storage is the largest capacity form of grid energy storage now readily available worldwide |
| | |} | | |} |
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| − | <br/>'''d) In-stream Hydropower Scheme''' | + | <br/><u>'''d) In-stream Hydropower Scheme'''</u> |
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| − | {| cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1" border="0" style="width: 800px;" | + | {| cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1" border="0" style="width: 100%;" |
| | |- | | |- |
| − | | Space for a figure | + | | ''Space for a figure'' |
| | | | | | |
| | -to optimize existing facilities like weirs, barrages, canals or falls, small turbines or hydrokinetic turbines can be installed | | -to optimize existing facilities like weirs, barrages, canals or falls, small turbines or hydrokinetic turbines can be installed |
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| | In 2010, in 161 countries hydropower is installed making up a worldwide installed hydro electric capacity of 926 GW which provide one-fifth of the world's electricity supply. Out of these 161 countries five countries make up more than the half of the world's hydropower production: China (~200 GW), Canada (74.4 GW), Brasil (84 GW), the USA (78.2 GW) and Russia (49.7 GW). | | In 2010, in 161 countries hydropower is installed making up a worldwide installed hydro electric capacity of 926 GW which provide one-fifth of the world's electricity supply. Out of these 161 countries five countries make up more than the half of the world's hydropower production: China (~200 GW), Canada (74.4 GW), Brasil (84 GW), the USA (78.2 GW) and Russia (49.7 GW). |
| | | | |
| − | The importance of the hydroelectricity in the electricity mix of the countries is, however different, some countries heavily depend on hydropower in their electricity generation, for example: | + | <u>The importance of the hydroelectricity in the electricity mix of the countries is, however different, some countries heavily depend on hydropower in their electricity generation, for example:</u> |
| | + | |
| | + | <u></u><br/> |
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| | {| align="center" cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1" border="1" style="width: 374px; width: 374px; height: 534px" | | {| align="center" cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1" border="1" style="width: 374px; width: 374px; height: 534px" |
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| | <br/> | | <br/> |
| − | | + | *For Existing Sites see also [[GPS coordinates - Hydropower sites|GPS coordinates - Hydropower sites]] |
| − | For Existing Sites see also [[GPS coordinates - Hydropower sites|GPS coordinates - Hydropower sites]] | + | |
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| | Source: World Atlas & Industry Guide 2010 The International Journal on Hydropower & Dams | | Source: World Atlas & Industry Guide 2010 The International Journal on Hydropower & Dams |
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| | === Grid connection for MHP's<br/> === | | === Grid connection for MHP's<br/> === |
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| − | Hydropower usually operates 24 h / day. Most mhp's are connected by a grid to their consumers. If a connection towards the national or main grid is available, electricity can be fed in there. Often micro or pico hydropower units are installed in remote areas. There they feed an isolated grid. In such grid the mhp is usually the only power source. The power produced has to be leveled equal with the power consumed (see controller).<br/>Battery storage is no must like at solar or wind power projects. This is a big advantage as it reduces costs and maintenance significantly. Charging stations can nevertheless extend a mhp's effectiveness by utilising power in times of low demand (late night). Like this, even consumers which are too far from the station to be connected by transmission cable can be served via rechargeable batteries. | + | Hydropower usually operates 24 h / day. Most mhp's are connected by a grid to their consumers. If a connection towards the national or main grid is available, electricity can be fed in there. Often micro or pico hydropower units are installed in remote areas. There they feed an isolated grid. In such grid the mhp is usually the only power source. The power produced has to be leveled equal with the power consumed (see controller). |
| | + | |
| | + | Battery storage is no must like at solar or wind power projects. This is a big advantage as it reduces costs and maintenance significantly. Charging stations can nevertheless extend a mhp's effectiveness by utilising power in times of low demand (late night). Like this, even consumers which are too far from the station to be connected by transmission cable can be served via rechargeable batteries. |
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| | <br/> | | <br/> |
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| | '''Construction''' a mhp consists of: divertion constructions in the river, Guiding water per canal and pipe, the '''electrical-mechanical''' '''equipment''' to turn water power into electricity plus transmission lines and house connections. Nevertheless if it is community based, main challenge will be the '''social setup'''. The people of the community who will build / use the mhp have to be introduced, trained, learned and encouraged to organise, operate and manage their power station. A sustainable working mhp scheme requires users who are enabled to understand "their" system. | | '''Construction''' a mhp consists of: divertion constructions in the river, Guiding water per canal and pipe, the '''electrical-mechanical''' '''equipment''' to turn water power into electricity plus transmission lines and house connections. Nevertheless if it is community based, main challenge will be the '''social setup'''. The people of the community who will build / use the mhp have to be introduced, trained, learned and encouraged to organise, operate and manage their power station. A sustainable working mhp scheme requires users who are enabled to understand "their" system. |
| | + | |
| | + | <br/> |
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| | [[File:Depok.jpg|thumb|center|400px|Depok.jpg|alt=Depok.jpg]] '''civil structure''' | | [[File:Depok.jpg|thumb|center|400px|Depok.jpg|alt=Depok.jpg]] '''civil structure''' |
| | + | <br/> |
| | + | <br/> |
| | + | [[File:Forbay trashrack pennstock.jpg|thumb|left|400px|Forbay, spillway, trashrack pennstock. (including breather pipe, trust & support blocks)|alt=Forbay trashrack pennstock.jpg]] |
| | + | [[File:Powerhouse 2.jpg|thumb|center|400px|Powerhouse: Electro-mechanical equipment - generator and crossflow turbine mounted on base frame|alt=Powerhouse 2.jpg]] |
| | + | [[File:Management-Poster.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Organisation and Management]]<br/> |
| | + | <div><br/><br/> |
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| − | {| cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1" border="0" style="width: 500px;" class="FCK__ShowTableBorders"
| + | <br/><br/> |
| − | |-
| + | |
| − | |
| + | |
| − | <span>[[File:Forbay trashrack pennstock.jpg|thumb|left|400px|Forbay trashrack pennstock.jpg|alt=Forbay trashrack pennstock.jpg]]</span> | + | |
| | | | |
| − | forebay, spillway, trash rack,
| + | [[File:Introduction-hydro.jpg|thumb|left|400px|Information of chances and efforts a hydropower plant requires|alt=Introduction-hydro.jpg]] |
| | | | |
| − | '''penstock''' (incl. breather pipe, trust & support blocks)
| + | [[File:Canal-participation-2.jpg|thumb|center|250px|Participation of community|alt=Canal-participation-2.jpg]]<br/> |
| | | | |
| − | | [[File:Powerhouse 2.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Powerhouse 2.jpg|alt=Powerhouse 2.jpg]]
| + | <br/> |
| − | '''electro-mechanical equipment''': | + | *For an overview or possible impacts on a mhp's success, check out the [http://energypedia.info/images/1/1f/Mhp-tree-3.jpg mhp-tree-diagram] |
| − | | + | |
| − | generator and crossflow turbine mounted on base frame
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | |}
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | [[File:Management-Poster.jpg|thumb|left|400px|Organisation and Management]][[File:Introduction-hydro.jpg|thumb|left|400px|Information of chances and efforts a hydropower plant requires|alt=Introduction-hydro.jpg]] | + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | [[File:Canal-participation-2.jpg|thumb|center|400px|Participation of community|alt=Canal-participation-2.jpg]]<br/>
| + | |
| | | | |
| | <br/> | | <br/> |
| − |
| |
| − | For an overview or possible impacts on a mhp's success, check out the [http://energypedia.info/images/1/1f/Mhp-tree-3.jpg mhp-tree-diagram]
| |
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| | == <span>Suitable Conditions for</span> Micro-hydro Power<br/> == | | == <span>Suitable Conditions for</span> Micro-hydro Power<br/> == |
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| | [http://energypedia.info/index.php/file:Brief_site_assessment.pdf => a two page condensed site assessment] | | [http://energypedia.info/index.php/file:Brief_site_assessment.pdf => a two page condensed site assessment] |
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| − | '''Flow measures '''in feasibility studies:<br/>Flow data should be gathered over a period of at least one year where possible, so as to ascertain the fluctuation in river flow over the various seasons.<br/>At least '''measures must be taken during dry season''' to assure that there is always enough water to power the turbine. Too little water results in power cut. If such is not clear to consumers from begin with it can seriously endanger the projects success. | + | <br/> |
| | + | |
| | + | <u>'''Flow measures '''in feasibility studies:</u><br/>Flow data should be gathered over a period of at least one year where possible, so as to ascertain the fluctuation in river flow over the various seasons.<br/>At least '''measures must be taken during dry season''' to assure that there is always enough water to power the turbine. Too little water results in power cut. If such is not clear to consumers from begin with it can seriously endanger the projects success. |
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| | <br/> | | <br/> |
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| | *powering a drinking water pump | | *powering a drinking water pump |
| | *community services (washing, freezing, ironing) | | *community services (washing, freezing, ironing) |
| | + | |
| | + | <br/> |
| | | | |
| | Availability of cash gives also other possibilities to gain additional revenues. E.g. to build storage capacities which can house a communities harvest; by gross deals during off season prices are high.<br/>Financial benefits to the communities served are usually reduced expenses for oil, batteries and petrol to power lamps, radios and machines. Check potentials for productive use during feasibility study. Existing and planned machinery (type and power?) | | Availability of cash gives also other possibilities to gain additional revenues. E.g. to build storage capacities which can house a communities harvest; by gross deals during off season prices are high.<br/>Financial benefits to the communities served are usually reduced expenses for oil, batteries and petrol to power lamps, radios and machines. Check potentials for productive use during feasibility study. Existing and planned machinery (type and power?) |
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| | = Further Reading<br/> = | | = Further Reading<br/> = |
| | | | |
| − | [http://www.ich.no/ International Centre for Hydropower] | + | *[http://www.ich.no/ International Centre for Hydropower] |
| − | | + | *[http://www.british-hydro.org/ British Hydropower Association] |
| − | [http://www.british-hydro.org/ British Hydropower Association] | + | *[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroelectricity Wikipedia: Hydroelectricity] |
| − | | + | *[http://microhydropower.net/ Micro Hydropower] |
| − | [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroelectricity Wikipedia: Hydroelectricity] | + | *[http://practicalaction.org/hydro-power-answers practicalaction.org/hydro-power-answers] |
| − | | + | *For more links on MHP, click [[Further MHP links|here]]. |
| − | [http://microhydropower.net/ Micro Hydropower] | + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | [http://practicalaction.org/hydro-power-answers practicalaction.org/hydro-power-answers] | + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | For more links on MHP, click [[Further MHP links|here]]. | + | |
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| | <br/> | | <br/> |
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| | <references /> | | <references /> |
| | + | </div> |
| | + | <br/> |
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| − | [[Category:Hydro]]
| |
| − | [[Category:Hydro_(large)]]
| |
| | [[Category:Productive_Use]] | | [[Category:Productive_Use]] |
| | + | [[Category:Hydro_(large)]] |
| | + | [[Category:Hydro]] |
A mass of water moving down a height difference contains energy. This can be harvested. Moving water drives some waterwheel/turbine. This rotation either drives machinery directly (e.g. mill, pump, hammer, thresher, ...) or is coupled with a generator which produces electric power.
Hydropower is probably the first form of automated power production which is not human/animal driven. Moving a grind stone for milling first, developed into the driving of an electrical generator. Next to steam it was for long the main power source for electricity.
Its continual availability does not require any power storage (unlike wind/solar power). It is mainly mechanical hardware. This makes it relative easy to understand and repair-/maintainable. In smaller units its environmental impact becomes neglect-able (see: environmental impact assessment and pros and cons of micro hydropower) .
These specific conditions limit generalising and standartisation of "how to install hydropower plants". Choosing the right location and planning requires some specific knowledge. With knowledge of water flow and height difference the potential power can be estimated.
Wrong data occurs frequently. Confirmation of existing data is highly recommended!
By measuring total height step by step, it's crucial to do the bearing strictly horizontally. Ensure that by using a level or a water filled hose. Widely available are hoses and pressure gauges which allow the easiest method of height measurement. As longer the hose as less steps have to be taken to measure the total head.
Hydropower installations can be classified by size of power output, although the power output is only an approximate diversion between different classes. There is no international consensus for setting the size threshold between small and large hydropower.
For the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) and the European Small Hydropower Association (ESHA) and the International Association for Small Hydro a capacity of up to 10 MW total is becoming the generally accepted norm for small hydropower plants (SHP). In China, it can refer to capacities of up to 25 MW, in India up to 15 MW and in Sweden small means up to 1.5 MW, in Canada 'small' can refer to upper limit capacities of between 20 and 25 MW, and in the United States 'small' can mean 30 MW.
The German Federal Ministry for Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety mentioned that a SHP is < 1 MW, everything above is a large hydro electric plant and usually comes along with a large dam. The International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD) defines a large dam as a dam with a height of 15 m or more from the foundation. If dams are between 5-15 m high and have a reservoir volume of more than 3 million m3, they are also classified as large dams. Using this definition, there are over 45 000 large dams around the world.
There is no binding definition how Mini hydropower output is to be classified. Rules for communication avoiding misunderstandings: Generally the terms can be used "downwards compatible". Pico- is also Mini- but not visa versa. Specific terms (Pico, Family) should be used only if they are required to indicate specifics. The spectrum needs higher diversification as smaller it becomes as there are certain differences in technique, usage, applicability and the grade of of ability to replicate them.
Classification according to size has led to concepts such as ‘small hydro’ and ‘large hydro’, based on installed capacity measured in MW as the defining criterion. Defining hydropower by size is somewhat arbitrary, as there are no clear relationships between installed capacity and general properties of hydropower or its impacts. Hydropower comes in manifold project types (see Classification By Facility Type) and is a highly site-specific technology, where each project is a tailor-made outcome for a particular location within a given river basin to meet specific needs for energy and water management services.
The constructions and integration into local environments of Small Hydro Power (SHP) schemes typically takes less time and effort compared to large hydropower plants. For this reason, the deployment of SHPs is increasing in many parts of the world, especially in remote areas where other energy sources are not viable or are not economically attractive.
However, larger facilities will tend to have lower costs on a USD/kW basis due to economies of scale, even if that tendency will only hold on average. Moreover, one large-scale hydropower project of 2,000 MW located in a remote area of one river basin might have fewer negative impacts than the cumulative impacts of four hundred 5 MW hydropower projects in many river basins (see also Negative Environmental Impacts). For that reason, even the cumulative relative environmental and social impacts of large versus small hydropower development remain unclear, and context dependent. General concepts like ‘small’ or ‘large hydro’ are not technically or scientifically rigorous indicators of impacts, economics or characteristics. Hydropower projects cover a continuum in scale, and it may be more useful to evaluate a hydropower project on its sustainability or economic performance, thus setting out more realistic indicators[2].
Hydropower plants can be classified in three categories according to operation and type of flow (see figure a-c).
In addition, there is a fourth category (d) called in-stream technology, which is a young and less-developed technology. Whereas pumped storage HPPs are only economical attractive in large scales, run-of-river and storage can be small and large.
Text and Figures of this article are mainly taken from the Chapter 5 of the IPCC Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation (2011). Prepared by Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [O. Edenhofer, R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, K. Seyboth, P. Matschoss, S. Kadner, T. Zwickel, P. Eickemeier, G. Hansen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow (eds)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 1075 pp.
In 2010, in 161 countries hydropower is installed making up a worldwide installed hydro electric capacity of 926 GW which provide one-fifth of the world's electricity supply. Out of these 161 countries five countries make up more than the half of the world's hydropower production: China (~200 GW), Canada (74.4 GW), Brasil (84 GW), the USA (78.2 GW) and Russia (49.7 GW).
Source: World Atlas & Industry Guide 2010 The International Journal on Hydropower & Dams
Hydropower offers a significant potential of renewable energy production. In 2009 electricity production from hydropower was in average 3550 TWh which is about 16% of the global electricity production. On a global basis the technically feasible potential of hydropower generation is 14576 TWh/yr with indicates large opportunities for hydropower development worldwide. The undeveloped capacity ranges from 30% in Europe up to 88% in Africa. Additionally significant potential for possible renovation, modernization and upgrading of old power stations exist as well as to rework existing infrastructure that currently lacks generating units.
1) World Atlas & Industry Guide 2010 The International Journal on Hydropower & Dams
2) Chapter 5 of the IPCC Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation (2011). Prepared by Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [O. Edenhofer, R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, K. Seyboth, P. Matschoss, S. Kadner, T. Zwickel, P. Eickemeier, G. Hansen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow (eds)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 1075 pp.
Hydropower usually operates 24 h / day. Most mhp's are connected by a grid to their consumers. If a connection towards the national or main grid is available, electricity can be fed in there. Often micro or pico hydropower units are installed in remote areas. There they feed an isolated grid. In such grid the mhp is usually the only power source. The power produced has to be leveled equal with the power consumed (see controller).
Battery storage is no must like at solar or wind power projects. This is a big advantage as it reduces costs and maintenance significantly. Charging stations can nevertheless extend a mhp's effectiveness by utilising power in times of low demand (late night). Like this, even consumers which are too far from the station to be connected by transmission cable can be served via rechargeable batteries.
Small hydropower plants usually use (part-) river flow as driving force. Storage basins or even dams can buffer water. So demand peaks or (short) periods of water shortage can be bridged. As such infrastructures is costly and sophisticated, it's only used if there is a clear financial revenue; e.g. electricity supply for remote industries. Standard elements for mhp ====
